The covenant between the Lord and his people, represented especially by the Davidic king, is the governing theological concept in psalmic worship. The covenant is the basis for the worshiper’s appeal to the Lord, and covenant terminology supplies themes and motifs that are prominent especially in the psalms of petition.
The Davidic Kingship
The covenant is an agreement granted by Yahweh, as the Great King, to his servant people, represented in the Psalms especially by the Davidic ruler. The traditional identification of half the Psalms with David, as well as the obvious association of many of the Psalms with the king as military leader and spokesman for the community, underscore the association of the Psalter with the Judean royal house. The Jerusalem sanctuary, with its priesthood and musicians, was established by David and Solomon and continued under the patronage of the royal house of Judah. A theology of the Lord’s special choice and anointing of David and his dynasty, first enunciated by the prophet Nathan (2 Sam. 7:7–17), seems to have been developed in association with the worship on Zion. Thus many of the Psalms appear to be for the use of the king (or in his behalf), as the covenant partner or vassal of the Lord, the “great King.”
He gives his king great victories,
He shows [covenant love] to his anointed,
To David and his descendants forever. (Ps. 18:50)
But the king will rejoice in God;
All who swear by God’s name will praise him,
While the mouths of liars will be silenced. (Ps. 63:11)
The Psalms reflect the king’s involvement in warfare. They represent him engaged in a bitter struggle against dangerous enemies, the opponents of Yahweh’s covenant, calling out to the Lord for deliverance and vindication in behalf of the righteous. Several psalms celebrate the Lord’s covenant with David to establish his dynasty in Zion (Pss. 89; 110; 132). There are special psalms associated with the coronation of the Davidic ruler (Pss. 2; 72), and even a nonreligious poem celebrating the royal marriage (Ps. 45).
In all this, however, the king stands before the Lord on behalf of the community. He speaks as the representative worshiper, and what he says to the Lord is generalized to express the need and the devotion of all the faithful. The same principle applies to the Lord’s words to the king in the Psalms; they declare his faithfulness and deliverance to all worshipers. Biblical culture did not think of personality in the individualistic way to which we in the West are accustomed; the Hebraic mind worked with an understanding of “corporate personality,” in which the individual’s view of himself or herself was bound up in his or her solidarity with the leader of the community. (Christ’s atonement for the sin of others and his impartation of new life to those who are “in Christ” can be fully understood only in light of this Hebraic sense of corporate identity.) For these reasons, it is not always appropriate to distinguish between the “individual” and the “community” psalms.
Yahweh’s Covenant Love
The Psalms in several places refer to the covenant granted by the Lord as the foundation for Israel’s hope of deliverance from distress, the basis for the doctrine of the enduring rule of the Davidic dynasty, and the formulation of the worshiping community’s obligation to its God:
He provided redemption for his people;
He ordained his covenant forever—
Holy and awesome is his name. (Ps. 111:9)
You said, “I have made a covenant with my chosen one,
I have sworn to David my servant,
I will establish your line forever
And make your throne firm through all generations. (Ps. 89:3–4)
He took note of their distress
When he heard their cry;
For their sake he remembered his covenant
And out of his great [covenant love] he relented. (Ps. 106:44–45)
But from everlasting to everlasting the Lord’s [covenant] love is with
Those who fear him,
And his righteousness with their children’s children—
With those who keep his covenant
And remember to obey his precepts. (Ps. 103:17–18)
Although the community of Israel has bound itself to God by covenant (Ps. 50:5) and is pledged to abide by its precepts, in the psalmist’s eyes it is chiefly the Lord who, having initially granted the covenant, upholds it by his grace. Frequently the Psalms speak of his “faithfulness” (’munah) and his “righteousness” (tzdaqah); these qualities are not indiscriminately displayed attributes of God but more specifically express his active intervention in the life of his people to maintain the covenant. Virtually synonymous with these terms, and used more frequently (more than 120 times in 53 psalms), is the word ḥesed, often translated as “loving-kindness,” “love,” “steadfast love,” or “mercy.” Again, Yahweh’s ḥesed is not his impartial benevolence to all creation but specifically his love and mercy to his own people, out of loyalty to the covenant. Only those who have obligated themselves in treaty with the Great King have the right to appeal to him on the basis of his ḥesed; the best translation is, therefore “covenant love.”
In a treaty relationship, the servant-king may appeal to the overlord for protection from enemies on the basis of the great king’s good offices in granting the agreement and his loyalty to his word. In the same manner, it is in virtue of the Lord’s covenant love to his servants that the worshiper may plead with him for help and salvation:
Remember not the sins of my youth and my rebellious ways;
According to your [covenant love] remember me,
For you are good, O Lord. (Ps. 25:7)
Rise up and help us;
Redeem us because of your [covenant love]. (Ps. 44:26)
In your [covenant love], silence my enemies;
Destroy all my foes,
For I am your servant. (Ps. 143:12)
In many respects “covenant love” is the key word or concept in the book of Psalms; it pervades all that is said to, or about, Yahweh, whether the word ḥesed is present or not. In its praise of the Lord, Israel joyfully celebrates his covenant love:
It is good to [confess to] the Lord
And make music to your name, O Most High,
To proclaim your [covenant love] in the morning
And your faithfulness at night. (Ps. 92:1–2)
The most oft-repeated thanksgiving in the Psalter (Pss. 106:1; 107:1; 118:1, 29; 136:1–26; cf. 1 Chron. 16:34; 2 Chron. 20:21) praises Yahweh for his loyalty to the covenant. Yet in times of distress, the Psalms express the community’s anguish with shocking candor. The speaker may even take the Lord to task for seemingly failing to honor his obligation to defend his partner:
You sold your people for a pittance,
Gaining nothing from their sale.
You have made us a reproach to our neighbors,
The scorn and derision of those around us.…
All this happened to us, though we had not forgotten you
Or been false to your covenant. (Ps. 44:12–13, 17)
You have renounced the covenant with your servant
And have defiled his crown in the dust. (Ps. 89:39)
Such language reveals the extent to which the concept of the treaty could be taken in Israel’s understanding of its relationship with Yahweh.
The Righteous and the Wicked
The Faithful and the Ungodly Contrasted. The theme of the opposition between the faithful worshiper and his ungodly enemies, which surfaces repeatedly in the book of Psalms, is an integral part of the covenant pattern of psalmic worship. This motif predominates in the first part of the Psalter, the “prayers of David,” and extends into the remainder of the collection as well; in its various forms, it is present in fully half of the Psalms. On the whole, the Psalms do not present a picture of a people worshiping in complacent unity, but rather reflect an intense struggle for dominance between rival groups within the nation. Some have taken this as evidence for a late origin for the Psalms, reflecting the period when the Jews dwelt alongside other cultural groups in the context of larger empires. However, this is essentially the same situation as that depicted in the pre-exilic prophetic books, in which Israel’s covenant with Yahweh is viewed as being in constant jeopardy due to spiritual indifference and the encroachments of false religious influences.
The contrast between the faithful and the ungodly is set forth at the very beginning of the Psalter, in the introductory psalm:
Therefore the wicked will not stand in the judgment,
Nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous.
For the Lord watches over the way of the righteous,
But the way of the wicked will perish. (Ps. 1:5–6)
The Psalms exclude from the sanctuary of the Lord those who have made a covenant, lifting the hand in oath, with divinities other than Yahweh, the true God:
Who shall ascend to the hill of the Lord?
And who shall stand in his holy place?
He who has clean hands and a pure heart,
Who does not lift up his soul to what is false,
And does not swear deceitfully. (Ps. 24:3–4 RSV)
The Worshiper’s Pledge of Loyalty. Frequently, the speaker affirms his loyalty to Yahweh in terms reminiscent of the vassal’s response ratifying the treaty offered by the great king. Thus, the psalmist often pledges himself to the Lord with expressions such as “You are my God” (Pss. 63:1; 118:28; 140:6; 143:10), “You are my [Yahweh]” (Ps. 16:2), or “You are my King” (Ps. 44:4; cf. Ps. 74:12). This pledge is in contrast to the attitude of his adversaries, those outside the covenant. Typical of this response is Psalm 31:
I hate those who cling to worthless idols;
I trust in the Lord.…
They conspire against me
And plot to take my life.
But I trust in you, O Lord;
I say, “You are my God.”
My times are in your hands;
Deliver me from my enemies and from those who pursue me.
Let your face shine on your servant;
Save me in your [covenant love]. (Ps. 31:6, 13–16)
The Enemies and Their Fate. The psalmist’s enemies appear in many guises. They may be people bringing false accusation (Ps. 109:2–5) or who ridicule the worshiper’s submission to the Lord (Ps. 69:7–12); the prosperous whose wealth renders them arrogant and indifferent to spiritual matters (Ps. 73:3); former friends and fellow worshipers who have turned against the speaker (Ps. 55:12–14); rebels within the community (Ps. 86:14), potential assassins (Pss. 56:6; 59:3), or foreign invaders (Ps. 79:1–4). The common thread is that they are a menace to the worshiper and stand outside the covenant with Yahweh. More than thirty psalms include a description of these enemies:
Do I not hate those who hate you, O Lord,
And abhor those who rise up against you?
I have nothing but hatred for them;
I count them my enemies. (Ps. 139:21–22)
An oracle is within my heart concerning the sinfulness of the wicked:
There is no fear of God before his eyes. (Ps. 36:1)
His mouth is full of curses and lies and threats;
Trouble and evil are under his tongue.
He lies in wait near the villages;
From ambush he murders the innocent,
Watching in secret for his victims. (Ps. 10:7–8)
The wicked draw the sword and bend the bow
To bring down the poor and needy,
To slay those whose ways are upright. (Ps. 37:14)
Against the ungodly the worshiper often feels inadequate; his enemies seem to be the wealthy, the privileged, and the powerful:
Therefore pride is their necklace;
They clothe themselves with violence.
From their callous hearts comes iniquity;
The evil consents of their minds knows no limits.
They scoff, and speak with malice;
In their arrogance they threaten oppression.
Their mouths lay claim to heaven,
And their tongues take possession of the earth. (Ps. 73:6–9)
Because of Yahweh’s faithfulness, however, the fate of the worshiper’s enemies is sealed. Although the psalmist’s situation may appear desperate from the perspective of ordinary life, when he enters the place of worship he receives a new insight:
When I tried to understand all this,
It was oppressive to me
Till I entered the sanctuary of God;
Then I understood their final destiny.
Surely you place them on slippery ground;
You cast them down to ruin. (Ps. 73:16–18)
The sorrows of those will increase who run after other gods.
I will not pour out their libations of blood
Or take up their names on my lips. (Ps. 16:4)
The imprecatory psalms, or psalms of cursing, are an important part of the psalmic portrayal of the defeat of the enemies. Like the curses of the ancient treaty, they invoke the sanctions against those who, as opponents of Yahweh and his servant, have broken the bonds of covenant faithfulness. Psalm 109 is the epitome of these psalms of cursing:
When he is tried, let him be found guilty,
And may his prayers condemn him.
May his days be few;
May another take his place of leadership.
May his children be fatherless
And his wife a widow.…
May a creditor seize all he has;
May strangers plunder the fruit of his labor.…
For he never thought of [acting according to covenant love],
But hounded to death the poor and the needy
And the brokenhearted.…
May this be the Lord’s payment to my accusers,
To those who speak evil of me. (Ps. 109:7–9, 11, 16, 20)
The Lord’s Deliverance
The Appeal of the Worshiper. The Psalms echo with the worshiper’s appeal to the Lord for deliverance from his enemies and for the vindication of his determination to remain faithful to the covenant. Repeatedly the speaker cries out, “Hear my cry!” or “Save me!” or “Rescue me!”
Do not turn me over to the desire of my foes,
For false witnesses rise up against me,
Breathing out violence. (Ps. 27:12)
Vindicate me, O God, and plead my [case] against an ungodly nation;
Rescue me from deceitful and wicked men. (Ps. 43:1)
Rescue me and deliver me in your righteousness;
Turn your ear to me and save me. (Ps. 71:2)
Deliver me and rescue me from the hand of [aliens],
Whose mouths are full of lies,
Whose right hands are deceitful. (Ps. 144:11)
The Lord’s Answer; the Worshiper’s Vow. The psalmist’s petition never goes unanswered. Even the most intense and anguished portrayals of the worshiper’s plight also include some recognition that the Lord has heard the speaker’s prayer. The psalmist celebrates the Lord’s answer, his victory, his faithfulness to the covenant. Closely associated with the proclamation of Yahweh’s deliverance is the worshiper’s vow of thanksgiving and praise; he promises to make the Lord’s saving deeds known to the worshiping congregation.
For he has not despised or disdained the suffering of the afflicted one;
He has not hidden his face from him
But has listened to his cry for help.
From you comes the theme of my praise in the great assembly;
Before those who fear you I will fulfill my vows. (Ps. 22:24–25)
I will not die but live,
And will proclaim what the Lord has done.
The Lord has chastened me severely,
But he has not given me over to death.
Open for me the gates of righteousness;
I will enter and give thanks to the Lord. (Ps. 118:17–19)
As a response to Yahweh’s faithfulness to the covenant, the speaker promises to perform the vow of praise (Pss. 65:1; 116:14), to give thanks or render thank offerings (Pss. 30:12; 35:18; 56:12; 116:17), to declare the Lord’s righteousness (Ps. 35:28), to sing praise, sometimes to instrumental accompaniment (Pss. 30:12; 43:4; 61:8; 69:30; 71:22), or simply to praise the Lord (Pss. 22:22; 63:3; 71:23). The worshiper, while still pleading for the Lord’s help, may offer the vow as an “incentive” for the Lord to save him:
O Lord, how long will you look on?
Rescue my life from their ravages,
My precious life from these lions.
I will give you thanks in the great assembly;
Among throngs of people I will praise you. (Ps. 35:17–18)
The worshiper’s act of praise is his covenant obligation to Yahweh; it is part of the tribute the servant brings to the Great King. The worshiper does not hesitate to remind the Lord that he will not receive his tribute unless he rescues his vassal:
No one remembers you when he is dead.
Who praises you from the grave? (Ps. 6:5)
Is your [covenant love] declared in the grave,
Your faithfulness in Destruction? (Ps. 88:11)
Entire psalms may be given over to the celebration of Yahweh’s deeds of redemption, whether in the past or yet to come (Pss. 27; 30; 46; 76; 118; 124). Occasionally, the voice of the sanctuary prophet heralds the Lord’s protection and deliverance to the faithful:
“Because he loves me,” says the Lord, “I will rescue him;
I will protect him, for he acknowledges my name.
He will call upon me, and I will answer him;
I will be with him in trouble,
I will deliver him and honor him.” (Ps. 91:14–15)
The Lord will keep you from all harm—
He will watch over your life;
The Lord will watch over your coming and going
Both now and forevermore. (Ps. 121:7–8)
Such utterances are a reminder that it is in the sanctuary that the Lord hears the plea of the afflicted (Ps. 18:6), and it is in the sanctuary that he reveals and enacts his deliverance (Pss. 73:17; 76:2–3). The Psalms, however realistically they may portray the life situation of the worshiper, do so not in the context of that original situation—the street, the marketplace, the sickbed, the battlefield—but in the midst of the assembly gathered in the presence of the Lord. They are a cultic reenactment of problems and difficulties encountered in remaining faithful to the Lord, so that the good news of his covenant love may be applied to them in the setting of the worshiping congregation.