Yahweh

Biblical Worship and Historical Recital

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The recitation of the history of Yahweh’s redemptive acts forms the basis for creed, liturgy, and preaching in the Old Testament. The Christian church took up the format of historical recital in its hymnic and creedal affirmation of God’s actions in Christ.

Israel’s Creedal Statements

Gerhard von Rad has isolated several creedal statements in the Old Testament which, he has argued, stand at the level of primary tradition. Among these confessions is the Deuteronomy passage:

My father was a wandering Aramean, and he went down into Egypt with a few people and lived there and became a great nation, powerful and numerous. But the Egyptians mistreated us and made us suffer, putting us to hard labor. Then we cried out to the Lord, the God of our fathers, and the Lord heard our voice and saw our misery, toil and oppression. So the Lord brought us out of Egypt with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm, with great terror and with miraculous signs and wonders. He brought us to this place and gave us this land, a land flowing with milk and honey. (Deut. 26:5–9)

For this writer the creedal character of these verses cannot be denied. The emphasis of these creedal statements is historical: Egyptian bondage, salvation from that bondage by Yahweh, the occupation of the land. Moreover, one cannot escape the fact that these affirmations are in plural address—“we” were in Egyptian bondage, “we” were redeemed by Yahweh, “we” were given this fertile land. Each time this affirmation was recited, the worshiper bridged the time and space gap and became identified with that never-to-be-repeated salvation: he or she actualized, contemporized, re-presented history.

Another example of historical recitation is found in the antiphonal liturgies in Joshua 4:6–7 and 24:14–28. Although the liturgical form has been clouded by the context of historical narration, the liturgy may be easily reconstructed:

The priest:     What do these stones mean?
The congregation:     They mean that the waters of the Jordan were cut off before the ark of the covenant of Yahweh; when it passed over the Jordan, the waters were cut off.
The priest:     So these stones shall be to the people of Israel a memorial forever.

Liturgical Affirmation of Yahweh’s Kingship

H. J. Kraus has suggested that these liturgical foundations emanated from Gilgal, a center of worship that carefully preserved the Jordan crossing and the conquest traditions. In these liturgies the reader is in touch with historical recital of the re-creation of history, a means of allowing the existential involvement of later generations in those acts of Yahweh that effected salvation and that continue to effect salvation.

Or one may cite a central thrust of the Jerusalem worship community, namely the liturgical affirmation of the Psalter—Yahweh has become/is king. Despite the discussion this affirmation has evoked, no thought of a dying-rising Yahweh is intended; nor was the kingship of Yahweh predicated in an annual cultic renewal ceremony. Nevertheless, in the Jerusalem temple, this liturgical affirmation brought the worshiper face to face with the reality of Yahweh’s kingship, not a theological abstraction, but an experiential and existential encounter that demanded a response. Indeed, one may posit that just such a worship encounter underlies the temple sequence in Isaiah 6, an encounter with the cultic reaffirmation of Yahweh’s kingship, which redirected the prophet’s life. Thus, in some sense, in the Jerusalem worship community, Yahweh’s kingship was reactivated in worship, and he “became king” for those who entered into the experience. Cultic recital provokes existential identification.

Historical Recitation in Preaching

To be sure, Israel’s worship was not limited to creedal and liturgical confessions—a flexibility developed within the cult, as witnessed by the book of Deuteronomy. In fact, Deuteronomy is a gigantic cultic actualization. Deuteronomy 5:3 reads: “It was not with our fathers that the Lord made this covenant, but with us, all of us who are alive here today.” This passage perhaps originated between the eighth and the sixth centuries, a time far distant from the Sinai event; nevertheless, centuries later Israel could corporately and culticly confess that the present generation stood anew at the foot of the holy mountain. Moreover, historical recitation and re-presentation give way to preaching, a fact that explains Deuteronomy’s homiletic or parenetic (that is, preaching) character. The creed is expanded into an injunction and a call for obedience as each generation is recalled to affirm Israel’s ancient faith, to bridge the time and space gap, to participate existentially and creatively with those events that culminated in the covenant. Thus, Deuteronomy, with its pattern of creedal recitation and homiletic expansion, sets the pattern for Christian preaching.

Historical Recitation in Christian Hymn and Creed

These examples of Israelite historical recitation illustrate the means by which Israel sought to re-create her history by liturgical re-presentation. Small wonder that the early church also presented its message by historical re-presentation. The early Christian hymns and creeds contained in the Pauline corpus (1 Cor. 15:3–7; Phil. 2:6–11) are harmonious with the Israelite pattern of historical recitation and re-presentation, for their emphases are on the historical, concrete memories of our Lord’s life and death. Even more illustrative is the creed in 1 Timothy 3:16: He appeared in a body, was vindicated by the Spirit, was seen by angels, was preached among the nations, was believed on in the world, was taken up into glory.

The death and resurrection of our Lord was a once-for-all, unique, unrepeatable historical event, and the early church, following the pattern of its spiritual ancestor, constructed similar historical recitations. In worship they stood again at the foot of the cross, by which they bridged the time and space gap, by which the Christ event continued in contemporaneity through cultic re-presentation.

And the church continued to formulate creeds. To be sure, such classic creeds as the so-called Apostles’ Creed and Nicene Creed were formulated to preserve dogmatic integrity; nevertheless, the basic character of these creeds is rightly historical. Of course, Israel would not have opened her creeds with the theological abstraction of God’s “almightiness,” nor would she have spoken of the outset of creation. Nevertheless, when the Apostles’ Creed begins the article of Jesus Christ, the Hebraic cultic pattern is maintained: “born of the virgin Mary,” “crucified under Pontius Pilate,” “died, was buried, raised on the third day.” To give audible expression to the Apostles’ Creed in worship is not an intellectual exercise in dogmatic assertion; in this audible expression something should happen—the worshiper should encounter anew the historical elements of our faith, and in some sense, experience the sacramental contemporaneity of our Lord with the worshiper. If one is to take the Israelite worship community seriously, then one is confronted with the demand to reactivate the purpose of re-presentation by historical recital, to view creedal affirmations not as tests of theological soundness, but as a means of existential identification with the past, as a means of bridging the time and space gap, as a means of re-creating the original event and existentially participating in those events that have accomplished our salvation.

Undoubtedly, many Protestant evangelicals have eschewed creedal statements primarily because the basic purpose has been lost; nevertheless, from the example of Israel’s worship community, such creedal re-presentations should be restored to Christian worship in order that the church may possess a more vital sense of its history, that it may become more aware of its corporate relationship with the church of all ages, and that it may participate in God’s saving act in Jesus Christ and recognize the demands that event makes on the individual. The loss of historical identification undercuts the dynamism of the Christian faith; Israel’s cultic pattern has pointed the way to a recovery of that historical involvement in Christian worship.

Names of God the Father in the Bible

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Biblical worshipers reverenced the name of the Lord, but the terminology they used varied depending on the worshipers’ needs, preference, or customary usage within the community. Included here are some of the major names or titles applied to God the Father in worship.

God (’El)

’El was the original supreme god of the Semitic pantheon; the title is associated with the idea of strength or might. By the time the Israelite tribes settled in Canaan, the principal god was Ba’al (“husband” or “lord”), the divinity of popular worship, especially fertility rites. ’El had receded into the background, and his name had become a generic term for “god.” Hence the name ’El could be applied to Yahweh, usually in combination with a qualifier. The following are the major compound names with ’El found in the Scripture.

Almighty God (’El shaddai). Shaddai is sometimes used alone. It comes from a Hebrew word meaning “mountain” and carries the meaning of “mountain God,” as well as the sense of strength and majesty. The thought, though not the name, is suggested in Psalm 121:1. As a title for God, ’El shaddai is largely associated with the patriarchal period; it is used often in the book of Job, which is set in that period, and it is as ’El shaddai that God changes the names of both Abram (Gen. 17:5) and Jacob (Gen. 35:10–12), in reaffirming his promise of land and descendants.

God Most High (’El ‘elyon). The root is probably ‘alah which means “to go up.” The name seems to have been associated with Salem (Gen. 14:18–20), a pre-Israelite designation for Jerusalem, where the Israelite sanctuary would eventually be located, and quite possibly came into use in Israel through Jebusites who converted to the worship of Yahweh. In the Psalms, the name is usually associated with Zion, either as ’El ‘elyon or simply ‘Elyon (Pss. 46:4, 50:14; 91:1; 92:1).

Mighty God (’El gibbor). The term gibbor, which describes a military man or warrior (1 Chron. 27:6), is frequently applied to God (Isa. 9:6; 10:21; Hab. 1:12). Psalm 24:8 celebrates “The Lord strong and mighty, the Lord mighty in battle.”

Eternal God (’El ‘olam). In Beersheba, Abraham called on the name of Yahweh, the everlasting or “Eternal God” (Gen. 21:33). The word ‘olam refers to continuous existence or long duration, both past and future. Eternity is ascribed to God as the sustainer of the creation, and more significantly, as the guarantor of the stability and enduring quality of the covenant with his people; the expression “everlasting covenant” occurs a number of times in Scripture (bƒrit ‘olam, Gen. 9:16; Isa. 61:8; Jer. 50:5; Ezek. 37:26; Ps. 105:10; diathēkē aiōniou, Heb. 13:20). The “Song of Moses” (Deut. 32:40) presents a picture of the Lord taking a covenant oath, lifting his hand and swearing, “as I live forever [lƒ‘olam].” The phrase “eternal God” occurs also in Isaiah 40:28, using another Hebrew word for God (’Elohei ‘olam).

The Living God (’El ḥai, Theos zontos). The expression “living God” describes Yahweh as a God of energy, vitality, and wrath. The name is associated with the ark (Josh. 3:10) and, in the longer form ’Elohim ḥayyim, with the armies of Israel (1 Sam. 17:26, 36). The psalmists cry out for the presence of the living God in the sanctuary (’El ḥai, Pss. 42:2; 84:2). Moses refers to the living God speaking from the midst of the fire in the Sinai covenant, and Jeremiah speaks of the wrath of Yahweh, “the living God, the eternal King” (Jer. 10:10). These expressions (both ’Elohim ḥayyim) form the background for the warning of the author of Hebrews, “It is a dreadful thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (Theos zontos, Heb. 10:31; cf. Rev. 7:2). Peter confessed Jesus as the Christ, “Son of the living God” (Matt. 16:16). Perhaps in allusion to the presence of the living God with the hosts of Israel, the New Testament church is called “the church of the living God, the pillar and foundation of the truth” (1 Tim. 3:15) and “Mount Zion … the city of the living God” (Heb. 12:22).

The Mighty One, God Yahweh (‘El ‘Elohim Yahveh). This expression occurs in Psalm 50:1; similar expressions are “great and mighty God” (’El haggadol haggibbor, Jer. 32:18) and “the God great and mighty and awesome” (Ha’El haggadol haggibbor vƒhannora’, Deut. 10:17; Neh. 9:32). These phrases are examples of the tendency of Semitic worshipers to pile up expressions in an attempt to convey the overpowering majesty of the Lord. The word awesome in Hebrew is nora’, literally, “to be feared.” It communicates the worshiper’s response of trembling or awe in the presence of the might and mystery of the Holy One; it is derived from the root y-r-’, the base for Hebrew words having to do with reverence and respect for God. Hebrew has no word for religion but conveys the idea through expressions such as “the fear of Yahweh” (Prov. 1:7; 9:10).

Deity (’Elohim)

Far more common than ’El, as applied to Yahweh, is the term ’Elohim, the plural of ’Eloah, “god.” The singular form is not found in the Hebrew Scriptures. In the New Testament, Theos translates both ’El and ’Elohim as a general term for God; usually it is preceded by the definite article, literally “the God.”

God. ’Elohim is the common Hebrew title for any divinity; since, for Israel, Yahweh is the only relevant divinity, he is called ’Elohim by his people, frequently with no qualifiers. In Scripture, the word ’Elohim can refer to pagan gods (Josh. 24:2; Ps. 96:4–5), to angelic beings (Ps. 8:5), or even to prominent or powerful people such as judges or princes (Ps. 82:6). As applied to Yahveh, the plural ’Elohim always takes a singular verb or modifier. Use of the plural conveys the idea of importance or majesty, a common practice in Semitic languages. It does not have implications for the doctrine of the Trinity, as is sometimes suggested. In a group of the Psalms found in Books II and III, ’Elohim appears to have been substituted by scribes for an original Yahveh; scholars occasionally refer to this part of the Psalms as the “Elohistic Psalter.”

God of Jacob (’Elohei Ya‘‡qov); God of Israel (’Elohei Yisra’el). Since Jacob and Israel are the same, these titles are equivalent. (Examples of the first are Isa. 2:3; Pss. 46:7; 81:1, 4; the second, which is more common, occurs in Exod. 24:10; Josh. 22:24; Isa. 45:3; Ruth 2:12; 1 Chron. 4:10; Theos Israēl, Matt. 15:31). Yahweh is the God who belongs specifically to Jacob, or Israel, by virtue of the covenant established at Mount Sinai. In pagan thought, gods ruled specific localities; thus Israel, when in Egypt, could have been expected to transfer its allegiance from the God who had met Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in Canaan, to the gods of Goshen, where they were residing. At Sinai, however, they entered into covenant with one particular God whose name was Yahweh, in this case using the Hebrew construct form ’Elohei or “God of” Jacob.

Lord (’Adon); My Lordship (’Adonai)

’Adonai is the plural form with the pronominal suffix. These are covenant titles for Yahweh; the plural form denotes majesty or increased status. Under ancient treaty structure the great king who entered into covenant with a lesser monarch was known as the “lord,” while his vassal was the “servant.” Because Israel, unlike the pagan nations around it, had entered into covenant with its God, they knew Yahweh as “the Lord” and regarded themselves as his servants (2 Chron. 6:22–23).

Jewish worshipers used ’adon and ’‡donai as substitutes for the divine name Yahveh. The Hebrew alphabet does not have vowels, but in the early Christian centuries Jewish scholars known as Masoretes devised a system of vocalization, or “points,” to show the vowel pronunciations in the biblical text. Devout Jews considered the name Yahveh too sacred to be pronounced, so when reading the Scriptures in worship they substituted the word Lord. In the text, scribes inserted the vowel points for ’Adonai into the name Yahveh (written YHWH) as a reminder to the reader to use ’Adonai instead. Translators of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries did not understand this practice and sometimes combined the vowel sounds for ’Adonai with the consonants for Yahveh, creating the name “Jehovah,” which was unknown in ancient times. English versions usually substitute the term the Lord where the name Yahveh occurs in the Hebrew, often using capital letters to indicate the substitution (the Lord).

Yahweh (the Lord)

Yahveh (usually Yahweh in English texts) is the personal or covenant name of God. By this name the Lord introduced himself to Moses at the burning bush (Exod. 3:13–15). The biblical text relates it to the Hebrew verb “to be,” and translates it “I am.” Taken literally, the Lord’s statement to Moses was, ’ehyeh ’‡sher ’ehyeh, or “I will be who I will be.” The name Yahveh seems to express his dynamic character, as the God who is revealed through events in history. He identifies himself in terms of the patriarchs who worshiped him, “the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob” (Exod. 3:15). Although the narrative suggests that Yahweh was unknown to Israel at the time he first appeared to Moses, the name was not a new one; the Bible relates that people began to call on the name of Yahweh in the time of Enosh, a grandson of Adam (Gen. 4:26). The original form of the name may have been Yah, which appears by itself several times in the Old Testament (Ps. 68:4) and as the ending of the exclamation Hallelujah! (praise Yah!). Another form may have been Yahu, as in the Hebrew forms of many names such as Isaiah (Yƒsha‘yahu, “salvation of Yahu”), Jeremiah, Adonijah, Hilkiah, Hezekiah, Benaiah, and so on.

In Christian worship, the name of the Lord is sometimes combined with other terms that qualify his relationship to the worshiper. In the Bible, however, many of these are not actually names of Yahweh. They are often names given to places where he manifests himself in a special way to his people. The following is a discussion of the best-known phrases that belong in this category. (Because of its importance, the expression “Lord of hosts” is treated separately.)

The Lord Our Provider (Yahveh yir’eh). This expression, familiar in English as “Jehovah Jireh,” literally means “Yahweh will see,” in the sense of provide (just as we say, “I’ll see to it”). Abraham gave this name to the place where the Lord provided a ram as the substitute for the sacrifice of Isaac (Gen. 22:14).

The Lord My Banner (Yahveh nissi). The banner, nes, was actually a standard or ensign used to rally an army in battle. After Israel’s victory over the Amalekites, Moses built an altar and gave it this name (Exod. 17:15).

The Lord Your Healer (Yahveh rof’ekha). Following the Exodus from Egypt, the Israelites came to a place where the water was undrinkable. After providing sweet water for them, the Lord promised that if the people would obey him he would protect them from the diseases of Egypt as their healer (Exod. 15:26).

The Lord Our Righteousness (Yahveh tzidqenu). The prophet Jeremiah used this as a title, not for Yahweh, but for the ideal Davidic king who is to reign with justice (Jer. 23:6). In the New Testament the word righteousness (dikaiosunē) is applied to Jesus Christ, who fulfills this expectation (1 Cor. 1:30; cf. 2 Pet. 1:1; 1 John 2:1).

The Lord Is Peace (Yahveh shalom). Gideon gave this name to an altar he built after the messenger of the Lord had appeared to him and called him to lead the Israelites against their Midianite oppressors. Because Gideon had seen a manifestation of God, he was afraid he would be struck dead (Judg. 6:11–24). But the messenger reassured him, saying, “Peace! Do not be afraid” (v. 23). From the context, it is obvious that the Lord’s “peace” (shalom) is not the absence of war; Gideon was being summoned to begin a war. Rather, in the context of life under the condition of sin and conflict, “peace” in the Bible means wholeness, health, salvation, prosperity, blessing, success. The prophetic hope for the ultimate perfection of all things, however, envisions a peace that includes the cessation of war, conflict, and fear (Mic. 4:3; Isa. 2:4).

The Lord Is There (Yahveh shammah). Ezekiel, prophesying during the exile in Babylon, specified this name for the city where the sanctuary was to be restored (Ezek. 48:35). It is a wordplay on the name of Jerusalem in Hebrew (Yƒrushalayim). Strictly speaking, it is not a name for the Lord. However, Christians understand that the Lord God himself is the temple in the new Jerusalem, the worshiping church (Rev. 21:22), and in that sense it is a name for God.

Lord of Hosts

We may derive the meanings of the names of God from the ways Israel used them in worship. Yahveh, as his covenant name, is associated with the ark of the covenant and often appears in combination with the term tzƒva’ot, “armies,” as in “Lord of hosts” (Yahveh tzƒva’ot, 2 Sam. 7:26; Pss. 24:10; 84:1; Isa. 9:7), or “Lord of hosts” (’Adonai Yahveh tzƒva’ot, Jer. 32:18 nasb). (Host is an old English word meaning “army.”) These expressions are the battle names of the Lord; as Israel’s covenant Lord or King, Yahweh, symbolized by the ark, which was his throne and the place of his presence, led the nation into war (1 Sam. 4:1–11). The cry preserved in Numbers 10:35–36 and Psalm 132:8, “Arise, O Lord, and come to your resting place, you and the ark of your might,” expressed this idea. The concept appears also in Psalm 24:7–10 when the Lord enters the gates of the sanctuary, probably reflecting a procession led by the ark, and in Psalm 10:12, when the psalmist asks the Lord to avenge his people. The title “Lord of hosts” appears also in the New Testament, the Hebrew word for hosts being taken over in transliteration (Kurios sabaoth, Rom. 9:29; James 5:4).

Other Names for God

In addition to the proper name Yahveh and the titles “God,” “Deity,” and “Lord,” the Bible contains many other important names by which Yahweh’s people know him.

Holy One (Qadosh); Holy One of Israel (Qƒdosh Yisra’el). Yahweh is called “the Holy One” (Isa. 40:25; Hos. 11:9) or sometimes “the Holy One of Israel” (2 Kings 19:22; Ps. 89:18; Isa. 37:23) or ’Elohai Qƒdoshi, “my God, my Holy One” (Hab. 1:12). The root meaning of holiness is separation or being set apart; therefore the phrase “the Holy One of Israel” means “the God who is distinctively Israel’s.” By the same token, Israel is a people “holy to the Lord their God” (Deut. 7:6; 14:2, 21; 26:19; 28:9), set apart for him. The basic meaning of holiness, therefore, is not goodness, purity, or moral virtue, but the transcendent quality of being above and separated from the common or ordinary. The English words sacred and sacrosanct better convey the meaning. In worship, the concept of God as the Holy One is evident in such instances as the cry of the seraphim in Isaiah’s temple vision: qadosh qadosh qadosh ’Adonai Yahveh tzƒva’ot, “Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts” (Isa. 6:3 nasb).

Mighty One of Israel (’Avir Yisra’el). An example of this usage is Isaiah 1:24. A variant is “Mighty One of Jacob” (’Avir Ya‘‡qov, Isa. 49:26; 60:16; Ps. 132:2, 5). This is similar to ’Elohei Ya‘‡qov, with added stress on the superior power of Yahweh, who belonged to Jacob, or the nation of Israel.

King (Melekh). As the giver of the covenant, Yahweh stands in the position of King over his vassal subjects, the Creator of his people (Isa. 43:15). Although Israel and Judah had earthly kings, they could not rule with the same absolute authority enjoyed by kings of the surrounding peoples, because the ultimate kingship of the Israelite tribes was vested in the Lord. Kings in the ancient world were military leaders, and the ark of the covenant was the symbol of Yahweh’s role as king in battle, the Lord of the hosts or armies of Israel (Isa. 6:5; Jer. 46:18; Mal. 1:14), the King in the midst of his people to defend them (Zeph. 3:15). As Lord of hosts, Yahweh is the “King of glory,” who enters his sanctuary (Ps. 24:7–10) “enthroned upon the praises of Israel” (Ps. 22:3 nasb). The Psalms summon the people of God to rejoice with abandon before their King (Ps. 149:1–4), who is the great King or Lord of the covenant (Pss. 47:2; 95:3; Mal. 1:14; Matt. 5:35). The worship of the Lord in Zion is a celebration of his kingship, not only over Israel, but over the whole earth or land (Pss. 29; 47; 93; 95–99). Thus, even when Judah faced defeat and exile, God’s true worshipers could praise him as King over all nations (Jer. 10:10), and even Nebuchadnezzar, the ruler of Babylon, is said to have honored him as King of heaven (Dan. 4:37).

In the New Testament, God is rarely called King (Basileus, 1 Tim. 1:17; Rev. 15:3), perhaps because the many Caesars and client kings of the Roman world rendered the title ambiguous for Christian usage. However, the concept of God’s kingship underlies all that is involved in the other titles by which the church knew and worshiped him and is synonymous with the idea of the kingdom of God. The festive celebration of God’s kingship is being increasingly recovered in many parts of today’s church.

Judge (Shofet). The function of a “judge” in ancient Israel was not that of administering justice in the modern legal sense. Justice (mishpat) actually means the entire way of life that maintains the integrity of the covenant and binds the community together; another translation is “custom,” referring to the conventional pattern of behavior that allows a society to function. The Lord is the maintainer and guardian of the covenant he has granted: “God himself is judge” (Ps. 50:6). As King, Yahweh is the Judge, or special guardian, of the weakest members of the covenant community, the orphaned and the oppressed (Pss. 10:18; 82:1–4). Thus, the worshiper who believes his position within the covenant has been compromised by the actions of others often cries out for the Lord to “judge” or vindicate him (Pss. 26:1; 43:1; 54:1). As Creator, Yahweh is also “the Judge of all the earth” (Gen. 18:25), the “judge of all men” (Heb. 12:23), deciding between peoples and nations (Judg. 11:27; Ps. 96:13). The Davidic king judges his people as God’s vice-regent (Ps. 72:1–2), and thus the apostles proclaim Christ as the Judge of all people (Acts 10:42; 17:31) and the vindicator of his own (2 Tim. 4:8; Rev. 6:9–10).

Savior (Moshi‡‘). This title occurs in Psalm 106:21 and often in Isaiah (Isa. 43:3, 11; 45:15; 49:26). In biblical usage, a savior was a national leader who delivered his people from their enemies by victory on the battlefield. In covenant terminology, “savior” is another title for the great king who fights the battles of his vassal. Yahweh was the King who protected Israel and won its military victories. His basic and most important act of deliverance, however, was the great emancipation of Israel from slavery to Pharaoh in Egypt. Because the death and resurrection of Christ effected a new exodus, calling forth a renewed covenant community, the title “Savior” is ascribed also to Jesus in the New Testament.

Redeemer (Go’el). This title is derived from the Hebrew root ga’al, literally “act as kinsman, do the part of the next of kin.” Examples of its use are Isaiah 49:26 and Psalm 103:4. The go’el was the kinsman designated to protect the integrity of the family. It was he who took in a relative’s widow, pursued the slayer of a family member to avenge his death, and bought back land or property that had been alienated from the family. In the Old Testament Yahweh is the Redeemer of Israel from Egyptian bondage (Exod. 15:3), from exile (Isa. 43:1, 14; 44:22–23), from enemies (Isa. 41:14), and from the pit (Ps. 103:4). In the New Testament the title “Redeemer” is not used. However, Paul says that Christ has redeemed, or bought back (exagorazō, Gal. 3:13; 4:5) his people, and speaks of the redemption (apolutrōsis, Rom. 3:24) that is in Christ, a concept that applies to the purchase of freedom for a slave.

Father (’Av, Patēr, Abba). God is called “Father” in the Old Testament (’Av, Jer. 31:9; 1 Chron. 29:10; Mal. 1:6), but far more often in the New Testament, in which the title is frequently on the lips of Jesus (Patēr, Matt. 6:9; John 4:23; 5:17–18; 17:1) and in the preaching and writings of the apostles (Acts 2:33; Eph. 1:2; Phil. 2:11). Jesus often spoke of “my Father,” introducing a note of intimacy and intensity in the relationship between the Father and the Son. This intimacy was so characteristic of the kingdom of God, which Jesus proclaimed, that the Greek Gospels preserve the familiar Aramaic word Abba, which Jesus used (Mark 14:36), and Paul took it up even in a Greek-speaking church (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Abba is always paired with its Greek equivalent, Patēr; the double usage does not simply translate the term, but intensifies it. Abba, Patēr probably became a liturgical expression quite early, since it has covenant connotations. Ancient treaties sometimes refer to the great king who grants the covenant as “Father.” When Jesus and the New Testament writers use the phrase “Abba, Father” they recognize not only a familial relationship between God and the church, but a covenant relationship as well.

Husband (Ba‘al, ’Ish, Anēr). The Hebrew word ba‘al means “lord, owner, husband”; ’ish means “man, husband.” As a title for Yahweh, ba‘al is found in Israelite names from the period of the judges and the early kingdom (Jerubbaal, Judg. 7:1; Eshbaal, 1 Chron. 8:33; Meribaal, 1 Chron. 8:34). Because the title Ba‘al was also associated with the prominent Canaanite fertility god, whose cult attracted many Israelites away from the undivided worship of Yahweh, Israelite worshipers abandoned its use for Yahweh in favor of ’ish (Hos. 2:16). Biblical scribes sometimes substituted the word bosheth, “shame, shameful thing,” in proper names that used ba‘al (as in Mephibosheth for Meribaal). However, the Israelite prophets often compare the covenant between Yahweh and Israel to a marriage, especially in the portrayal of Israel and Judah as unfaithful wives (Hos. 2:1–13; Ezek. 23); in this sense Jeremiah applies the verbal form ba‘al, “be a husband,” to Yahweh (Jer. 31:32). In the New Testament, Paul uses the term husband (anēr) figuratively of Christ (2 Cor. 11:2), and the image of the church as the bride of Christ (Eph. 5:22–30; Rev. 21:2, 9) presupposes the concept.

Rock (Tzur). This word is sometimes translated “strength,” “might,” or “mighty,” and refers to the power of the Lord to protect his people; examples are 2 Samuel 22:47; Psalm 18:46; and Habakkuk 1:12. Tzur also indicates faithfulness (Deut. 32:4) and can be used as a synonym for God, as in Deuteronomy 32:18: “You deserted the Rock, who fathered you; you forgot the God who gave you birth.” The Lord calls himself a rock over which Israel will stumble (Isa. 8:14), and the New Testament sees Jesus as the embodiment of that rock of offense, who becomes the cornerstone of the new temple of God, the church (Luke 20:17–18; Rom. 9:33; Eph. 2:20; 1 Pet. 2:8). Paul also identifies Jesus as the Rock (hē petra) from which water gushed to quench the thirst of God’s people during their wilderness wanderings (1 Cor. 10:4).

Shepherd (Ro‘eh) or Shepherd of Israel (Ro‘eh Yisra’el). The latter phrase occurs in Psalm 80:1. Ancient kings were often called shepherds of their people. As shepherd, a king’s primary duty was to “feed the flock,” which was the nation over which he reigned. God takes the shepherds of Israel to task for leading them into idolatry and sin and causing them to abandon the worship of Yahweh, a violation of their responsibility to feed their people the law of the Lord (Jer. 23:1–2; Ezek. 34:2–10). As King of Israel, Yahweh is its Shepherd. Speaking to Israel, God declares, “You my sheep, the sheep of my pasture, are people, and I am your God” (Ezek. 34:31). David calls the Lord his Shepherd (Ps. 23:1) and describes God’s care and provision for him in terms of food (green pastures) and drink (quiet pools of water). Jesus identifies himself as the Good Shepherd, poimēn, who gives his life for the sheep (John 10:11). The writer of Hebrews calls him the “great Shepherd of the sheep” (13:20), and John pictures Jesus as the Lamb, who is the Shepherd in the midst of the worshiping church, feeding his flock and guiding them to living water (Rev. 7:16–17).

Ancient of Days (‘Attiq yomin). This term is an idiomatic Aramaic expression that literally means “aged one.” As it is used in Daniel 7:9, 13, and 22, it conveys the thought of the antiquity of God. Daniel’s description of the Ancient of Days with hair like white wool is echoed in Revelation 1:14, in which John sees “one like a son of man” standing in the midst of the golden lampstands, his head and hair “white like wool.” In using this language, John is identifying Jesus with Daniel’s Ancient of Days, or Yahweh, as he also does when he writes that Jesus was “in the beginning … with God” (John 1:1) and “before Abraham” (John 8:58).

God of Gods (’Elohei ha’ƒlohim). This phrase (Deut. 10:17) is an example of a Hebrew idiom that indicates a superlative. It does not mean there are other gods of whom Yahweh is the head but that he is the great and powerful God.

Lord of Lords (’Adonai ha’‡donim, Kurios kuriōn). This is another example of a Hebrew idiom (Deut. 10:17) that indicates a superlative. The phrase means “great and lordly Lord.” The idiom is carried over into the Greek (Rev. 19:16), although it is not idiomatic Greek, because the writers of the New Testament spoke and thought in a Semitic language. As a matter of fact, however, the covenant Lord is a Lord over other lords, since he is the great King in covenant with the priest-kings who make up the church (Rev. 1:6). As applied to Christ, the title is paired with “King of kings.”

Glory (Kavod). The Hebrew word kavod denotes glory in the sense of “mass, weight.” It refers to the radiant envelope or numinous aura of the manifest presence of the Lord. The Scriptures refer often to the glory of God, and occasionally the word glory stands for the Lord himself (Pss. 3:3; 89:17). This concept was more fully developed in the later Jewish Rabbinic writings, in which the word shƒkhinah (from the root shakhan, “dwell”) became synonymous with God himself in the sense of his abiding glory. (Shƒkhinah is not used in the Bible.)

Power (Dunamis). The power of God is made known in his Creation, his acts of deliverance, his miracles and wonders, and especially in the resurrection of Christ and the administration of his kingdom. Jesus uses the term Power as a synonym for God in responding to the Jewish high priest at his trial: “You shall see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of Power, and coming with the clouds of heaven” (Mark 14:62 nasb; cf. Luke 22:69).

Majesty (Megalōsunē). The august and majestic presence of the living God is expressed by this word, which literally means “greatness.” The author of Hebrews uses it twice as a substitute for “God” (Heb. 1:3; 8:1).

Almighty (Pantokratōr). The title means “ruler of all things” and is used mainly in the Revelation to John (though also by Paul, 2 Cor. 6:18). The Greek Old Testament often employed this term to translate the phrase “Yahweh of hosts,” and sometimes it appears in quotations from the Old Testament (Rev. 1:8; 4:8). As a title, “Almighty” is usually found in a context of judgment and wrath (Rev. 16:14; 19:15) and occurs several times in the majestic hymns of the Revelation (Rev. 11:17; 15:3; 16:7). In the renewed covenant of the new Jerusalem, “the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb” are the temple (Rev. 21:22).

Biblical Concept of “Name”

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The concept of the “name” is an important one in biblical worship. In fact, a synonym for “worship” in the Scriptures is the expression “call upon the name of the Lord” (Gen. 26:25; Pss. 80:18; 99:6; 105:1; 116:13, 17). Often we hear the summons to praise, bless, or exalt his name (Pss. 34:3; 96:2; 100:4; 135:3; 148:13; 149:3) or to ascribe glory to his name (Pss. 29:2; 66:2; 96:8; 115:1). The worshiper may speak of lifting his or her hands to the name of the Lord (Ps. 63:4) in the universal ancient gesture of homage.

Importance of the Name

In biblical thought, a name is more than a designation differentiating persons or things. A person’s name encompasses his complete identity, reputation, and character and refers to his whole self or person. In the Scripture, the phrase “my name” is often used in place of “I” or “me,” and “his name” means “him.” Thus, the Lord assures Moses that his name will be in the angel who goes before Israel, meaning that the Lord himself will be present (Exod. 23:20–21). When God’s people are commanded to praise the name of the Lord, they are in fact being told to praise the Lord himself. The sanctuary is the place where the Lord causes his name to dwell (Deut. 12:11), or establishes his name (Deut. 16:6; 26:2), which is to say that his people may worship there in his presence.

Name and Character

One’s character is known by one’s name. Nabal’s reputation with his wife was reflected in his name, which meant “fool” (1 Sam. 25:25). Jacob’s name, “supplanter,” was descriptive of a life-style (Gen. 27:36), until the Lord changed his name with the idea that his behavior would be modified accordingly. Even much later, in New Testament times, a person’s name might be changed at a significant turn in his or her life. Jesus gave Simon the new name of Cephas (Aramaic) or Peter (Greek), meaning “rock,” when he first met him (John 1:42) and again when he became the first to acclaim Jesus as the Christ (Matt. 16:13–20). Saul became Paul, exchanging his Jewish for his Roman name, when he changed from a persecutor to a preacher of the gospel. In making a covenant with Israel, Yahweh first revealed his name to Moses as an indicator of his character in the covenant relationship. The term God is not really a name but a title, describing the “office” that Yahweh holds.

Covenant Significance of a Name Change

Covenant ceremonies often included changes of name. A great king who was granting a covenant to a subject king and his people was said to “form” or “create” the vassal nation. In the ancient world an object was not thought to exist until it was named, so the king who “created” the people would usually name them as well, sometimes calling them by his own name as a sign of ownership. Abram became Abraham when the Lord established a covenant with him. Jacob’s name was changed to Israel, which means “God rules” (Gen. 32:28), a name which later came to refer to Jacob’s descendants, the people God had created for himself. Aaron the priest put the Lord’s name on the covenant people (Num. 6:27); God has named Israel (Isa. 43:1), calling them by his own name (2 Chron. 7:14). His name is on the sanctuary where they are to worship him (Neh. 1:9) and the city in which it is located (Jer. 7:12).