Like any religious institution, the synagogue developed various leadership functions. Over the centuries the roles of the synagogue officers have altered as the needs of the Jewish community have changed. The most important development has been the emergence of the office of rabbi.
In the Old Testament the authority of the Jewish community was vested in the convention, or council, of “elders,” ziqnei, “elders of … ” (Gen. 50:7). The ritual and ceremonial administration were under the direction of the Levitical priesthood, assisted by a number of groups of professional aids such as singers and other musicians. These officials represented a special and privileged class in the community. After the collapse of the monarchy and its attendant feudalism and the rise of an entrepreneurial class in the period of Hellenism, the offices of the synagogue were open to a broader representation of members of the community. The increased democratization led to wider participation and a common religious interest. Without this change, Judaism would never have survived the Hellenistic age and would have followed the other archaic religious traditions into oblivion. The synagogue had about five offices; however, some were probably voluntary and carried no stipend or salary.
President of the Synagogue
The chief executive of the synagogue was called in Hebrew ro’sh hakkneset, and in Greek, archisunagōgos, “president of the synagogue.” This official was known also among pagan associations, but by the first century the term was more commonly applied to the Jewish officials, and by the fifth century exclusively so. The title has also been found on epigraphic inscriptions. The president was responsible not merely for the upkeep and operation of the house, but also for the order and sanctity of the service (Luke 13:14). Three individuals in the New Testament are so designated: Jairus (Mark 5:22; Luke 8:41); Crispus (Acts 18:8); and Sosthenes (Acts 18:17). The interesting fact that two of these are Gentile names indicates the degree of syncretism Hellenistic Judaism permitted. The archisunagōgos had the responsibility of selecting the Torah reading and may have read it himself in the congregation. At first, the evidence indicates that this was an elective office, later becoming hereditary, and finally perfunctory. The plural, archisunagōgoi, which appears in Acts 13:15, has been the center of some debate, but a text from Apamaea in Syria contains a listing of three such officials and uses the plural term. A similar difficulty has arisen concerning the simpler term “leader of the synagogue,” which appears only in Luke 8:41. This term is rare but has been located in contemporary inscriptions as an alternate and less proper form of archisunagōgos. Since the terms were still in a state of flux and as yet not fixed in the literary language, it is to be expected that such variants would be found.
Servant of the Synagogue
The second functionary in the synagogue was the ḥazzan hakkneset, “servant of the synagogue” (hupēretēs, “attendant,” Luke 4:20), a term later used of ministers of the gospel (Luke 1:2; Acts 26:16). The duties of the ḥazzan undoubtedly varied but included at various times cleaning the premises, removing and replacing the scrolls, and perhaps overseeing the teaching of the children. He also carried out the corporal punishments of the council (Matt. 10:17; 23:34; Mark 13:9). In later times the ḥazzan became the chief singer of the service and the term is now used for the “cantor.” The title and its etymologies have had a wide expansion. However, it is now accepted that the term was originally an Assyrianism in late Jewish Aramaic, derived from Akkadian hazunu(m), meaning “superintendent” or “overseer.” Although the title was sometimes used for the sexton, it was usually applied to one of the high officers of the synagogue. The fact that the ḥazzan handled the sacred scrolls while in the synagogue points to the importance of the office. As with all offices of the ancient Israelite religious community, the ḥazzan was functional. No doubt the functions varied from town to rural communities and from great to humble congregations, but the importance of the office grew with time. As the festivals and ceremonies developed along separate lines in Diaspora Judaism, so did the officers of the synagogue. The result is that a bewildering array of functions and honors are assigned to the ḥazzan in the literature of the rabbis.
Leader of the Prayers
The third officer of the ancient synagogue was the “leader of the prayers,” literally “messenger of the congregation” (shliḥ zibbur). This individual was chosen as representative of the New Testament congregation, in whose place he responded to the liturgical prayers. Some scholars have assumed that he fulfilled the role of the priest in this delegated responsibility, but it is clear that he was not sacrosanct and acted as a layman. In the New Testament period, the function could be assigned to any adult male in the congregation who was of good standing. It may be in this capacity that Jesus read the passage from Isaiah 61 in the synagogue at Nazareth (Luke 4:17–28). In later tradition the shliḥ zibbur lost this spontaneous quality and was a regularly employed person of the congregation. Some believe that in the absence of any person willing to act as the shliḥ zibbur, the chief officers might act in this capacity themselves. Undoubtedly this practice led to the merging of the office of shliḥ zibbur with the permanent one of ḥazzan so that the distinction between them became obliterated and the two terms interchanged.
Other Officers
Translator. A number of less certain officers are found in records and discourses on the synagogue. Some of these must have existed in Roman times and been absorbed into the later offices of the congregation. One of these was the Hebrew mtorgman, “interpreter” or “translator,” a person who was apparently chosen from the congregation to interpret the text of the Scripture from Hebrew into Aramaic for the purpose of the lesson. This practice may be involved in the phrase “which being interpreted is,” found six times in the New Testament (Matt. 1:23; Mark 5:41; 15:22, 34; John 1:41; Acts 4:36). The mtorgman played a very important part in the synagogue service in areas such as Galilee where Judaism of the Hebraic period had no tradition. A similar sort of personage must have functioned in lands of the Diaspora where Greek and Latin were spoken because the inscriptions on such synagogue buildings are usually in those languages and rarely in Hebrew. It was the notion of a Targumic translation for use in the synagogue that led to the formation of the Septuagint, or Greek version of the Old Testament.
Herald of the Shma‘. The reading of the shliḥ zibbur and the interpretation of the mtorgman were preceded by the public proclamation of the Shma‘ prayer. This was stated by a special officer, the “herald of the Shma‘.” This officer probably read the Shma‘ prayers as found in Deuteronomy 6:4–9, followed by passages from Deuteronomy 11:13–21 and Numbers 15:37–41, after which the congregation answered “Amen.” Such public prayer was always led by an officer and was referred to by a terminology different from that of private prayer. There is some evidence that the public praying of the Shma‘ was read from a scroll and that other passages, such as Exodus 20, may have been included. Some scholars have interpreted the action of the reading of the Decalogue as the promulgation of God’s imperial decree, his law. Thus they would associate this herald of the Shma‘ with the notion of the “herald” (kērux) of the gospel mentioned in 1 Timothy 2:7; 2 Timothy 1:11; and 2 Peter 2:5. This accords with the scriptural use of terms of royalty and the court to describe the reign of God. The literature of Judaism of all the ages makes clear that, in the Jewish mind, the synagogue was the kingly court of God; the most sacred place and the utmost reverence were afforded the Torah. It was in light of this devotion that all the offices of the congregation derived their place and authority. From the archisunagōgos to the herald, all were servants of the Torah.
Collector. Of the later administrative offices, the most important was the “collector” or “almoner,” whose task it was to collect and distribute funds for the poor. The public giving of alms was a feature of the Jewish religious community. It is mentioned in the rabbinic literature and frequently in the New Testament (Matt. 6:2–4). The Gospels and other contemporary sources indicate that while the temple in Jerusalem was supported by the royal establishment and received its revenue from special taxes, the synagogues were voluntary, and freewill offerings were commonplace. There is no doubt that the collector or almoner of the synagogue who ministered to the poor was the model for the deacon (Phil. 1:1; 1 Tim. 3:8, 10, 12–13).
The Rabbinic Office
The actual origin of the rabbinic office is lost in history. The term rabbi is of great antiquity and can be traced to Akkadian usage. In the biblical context, it means “teacher,” or “master,” and was at no time a priestly or ordained office. Any layman learned in the Torah and Jewish law could be called “rabbi.” In the tradition of Babylonian Judaism, the term was pronounced “Rav.” After the destruction of the temple and its officialdom, some attempt appears to have been made to continue the priestly offices, but as the majority of Jews moved in succeeding generations to the area of Galilee, the office of rabbi came to take their place as the ordained leadership in the community.