thanksgiving

Music in the Worship of the Old Testament

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Music was an important element of both temple and synagogue worship. Undoubtedly this music and its forms influenced the form and use of music in the early Christian church. Both Jews and Christians revere a transcendent God and both give honor to Scripture. For these reasons and others, Jewish synagogue worship and modern Christian services are similar in content and spirit.

Through almost three thousand years of Hebrew/Christian history, music has been inseparable from worship, and the Bible contains much of our early heritage of worship song. The Psalms come from many periods of the ancient Jewish culture, and they were augmented by canticles that date back to Israel’s deliverance from Egypt.

Synagogue worship probably developed among the Jews as a result of their dispersion in the fifth century before Christ. With its emphasis on the reading and explanation of Scripture, prayers, and the singing of psalms and canticles, it was very significant in the framing of early Christian worship. Music in the synagogue was led by cantors—soloists who may have been trained in the temple Levitical ministry—and included some congregational participation.

The New Testament era began with the canticles surrounding Christ’s birth, recorded in the Gospel of St. Luke. The new faith and its expression were supported with several types of music—“psalms and hymns and spiritual songs” according to the apostle Paul. The epistles do contain some general principles: the Scriptures were to be read and the gospel was to be preached, certain types of prayer were encouraged, and believers were expected to celebrate the Eucharist or Communion.

The Early Traditions

The first biblical reference to musical experience is a narrative of musical thanksgiving, led by Moses and his sister Miriam after the Israelites had been delivered from the Egyptians: Then Moses and the Israelites sang this song to the Lord: “I will sing to the Lord, for he is highly exalted. The horse and its rider he has hurled into the sea.… ” Then Miriam the prophetess, Aaron’s sister, took a tambourine in her hand, and all the women followed her, with tambourines and dancing. Miriam sang to them: “Sing to the Lord, for he is highly exalted. The horse and its rider he has hurled into the sea” (Exod. 15:1, 20–21).

This performance was both instrumental and vocal, involved both men and women, and was accompanied by expressive movement. The song was a prototype of the expressions of praise to God that are found throughout the Old Testament, particularly in the Psalms.

Erik Routley has reminded us that there are two musical worship traditions in the Old Testament: one was spontaneous and ecstatic, the other formal and professional (Church Music and the Christian Faith, p. 6). The first of these is mentioned as part of Saul’s preparation to become king of Israel; the prophet Samuel was giving the instructions:

After that you will go to Gibeah of God … as you approach the town, you will meet a procession of prophets coming down from the high place with lyres, tambourines, flutes, and harps being played before them, and they will be prophesying. The Spirit of the Lord will come upon you in power, and you will prophesy with them, and you will be changed into a different person. (1 Sam. 10:5–6)

In this early period, music was apparently expected to assist the worshiper’s experience of God. The same idea is expressed in connection with an occasion when the Prophet Elisha foretold God’s judgment: “But now bring me a harpist.” While the harpist was playing the hand of the Lord came upon Elijah and said, “This is what the Lord says” (2 Kings 3:15–16). The expectation that music can affect human behavior (ethos) was common in Scripture times and has persisted through history. The Bible also records an early use of music in therapy: whenever the spirit from God came upon Saul, David would take his harp and play. Then relief would come to Saul; he would feel better, and the evil spirit would leave him (see 1 Samuel 16:23).

Music in the Temple

The second Old Testament musical tradition—the music for the temple—was formal and professional, and was initiated by Israel’s shepherd-king who was himself a musician and hymn composer: David told the leaders of the Levites to appoint their brothers as singers to sing joyful songs, accompanied by musical instruments: lyres, harps, and cymbals (1 Chron. 15:16).

As priest-musicians, these performers gave full time to their musical service. They were chosen on the basis of their talent (1 Chron. 15:22) and were thoroughly trained, serving five years of apprenticeship before being admitted to the regular chorus. The Jewish choir was organized under at least three composer-conductors—Asaph, Herman, and Jeduthun (2 Chron. 5:12). The singing was accompanied by many kinds of instruments—lyres, pipes, harps, trumpets, and cymbals—and was also associated with dance (Ps. 150:4).

The Musical Sound

In ancient Hebrew worship, the words of Scripture were never spoken without melody; to do so was considered to be inappropriate. They were always sung in a fervent cantillation. (“Shout to God with loud songs of joy!” Ps. 47:1). They were accompanied by instruments in what is believed to have been a sort of heterophony, in which the instruments provided embellishments of the vocal melody. As in most early cultures, Hebrew instruments were of three basic types:

  • String—kinnor (“lyre,” related to the Greeks’ kithara) and nebhel (“harp” with up to ten strings, sometimes called “psaltery” in kjv).
  • Wind—shophar (a ram’s horn), halil (a double-reed, like the oboe), hazozerah (a metal trumpet), and ugabh (a vertical flute, used mainly in secular music).
  • Percussion—toph (tambourine, or hand drum), zelzelim (cymbals), and mena an im (a sistrum). (See The New Oxford History of Music, vol. 1, 295–296, and footnoted references.)

In Old Testament worship antiphonal singing was probably the norm, as evidenced by the fact that many of the Psalms are couched in a responsorial pattern. In modern liturgical church practice, each verse is divided into a versicle and response.

V: God be merciful unto us, and bless us;
R: And cause his face to shine upon us. (Psalm 67:1, KJV)
V: O give thanks unto the Lord; for he is good:
R: For his mercy endureth for ever. (Psalms 136:1, KJV)

It is natural for us to try to guess what this ancient music sounded like. Some Jewish worship musicians insist that they still retain much of the original character of their chants, even though they may have been originally preserved only by oral tradition. Recent musicologists have reasoned that the early Christian chant styles were patterned after Jewish antecedents. It is probable that certain traditions in the Byzantine chant of the Greek, Antiochian, and Palestinian churches carry some remnants of the original sounds. Eric Werner says that all the foremost authorities (Curt Sachs, A. Z. Idelsohn, and R. Lachman) agree that the chants were based on four-note (tetra-chordal) melodic motives, and that “the archetype of chant was similar to ancient Gregorian tunes, which means that they were based upon small melodic patterns of a rather narrow range, usually not exceeding a fourth or a fifth” (Eric Werner, Jewish Music, 623).

Within the last few years, French musician and scholar Suzanne Haik Vantoura released the results of her four years of research in the book La Musique de la Bible Revelee (The Music of the Bible Revealed). She is convinced that mysterious signs scattered throughout the Hebrew scriptures, both above and below the letters, are actually a system of musical notation, and not punctuation or accent marks as has been traditionally believed. Furthermore, she has reduced these signs to a system of notation, and has transcribed and recorded the melodies for approximately three hours of Bible music.

Werner also describes the musical performance in the Jews’ Second Temple: The morning sacrifice was accompanied by three trumpet blasts; the cymbals clashed, signaling the beginning of the Levitical chant. At the end of each portion the trumpets joined the singing to indicate to the congregation the moment when they were to prostrate themselves. Every song was probably divided into three portions. (Werner, 623)

Most scholars agree that music in the temple was almost completely professional and sacerdotal (performed by priests). The Jewish people participated principally as listeners. It is reasoned that they may have frequently joined in the traditional responses “amen” and “alleluia,” and possibly in an antiphonal refrain like “for his steadfast loves endures for ever” (Ps. 136).

The book of Psalms has been called the “hymnal of Israel.” The Psalms were sung in regular sequences following the morning and evening sacrifice on specified days of the week and were accompanied by instruments that occasionally indulged in an interlude indicated by the word Selah.

Psalms offered specific types of worship expression:

  • Praise: For it is good to sing praises to our God; for he is gracious, and a song of praise is seemly (Ps. 147:1).
  • Petition: Give ear, O Shepherd of Israel, thou who leadest Joseph like a flock! Thou who art enthroned upon the cherubim, shine forth before Ephraim and Benjamin and Manasseh! Stir up thy might, and come to save us! (Ps. 80:1–2).
  • Thanksgiving: I love the Lord, because he has heard my voice and my supplications (Ps. 116:1).

There were special psalms associated with festival occasions—royal psalms to honor the kings (e.g., 21, 45, 101), processional psalms (e.g., 24, 95, 100), and penitential psalms for periods of national repentance (e.g., 130). The “Egyptian Kings” Psalms (113–118) were very significant in the observance of the Passover and other times of national penitence.

There were at least four different modes of presentation:

1. A simple psalm (e.g., 46:1), sung by one person alone.
2. A responsive psalm (e.g., 67:1, 2), in which a choir answers the solo chant.
3. An antiphonal psalm, with several lines beginning or ending with the same phrase (e.g., 103:1, 2, 20–22), sung by two choirs in alternation.
4. A litany (e.g., 80:2, 3, 6, 7, 18, 19), which included a repeated refrain (Werner, 621–623).

Eric Werner also gives four design types: (Eric Werner, The Sacred Bridge, p. 133.)

1. The plain, direct psalm—no strophic arrangement.
2. The acrostic psalm—phrases in alphabetical sequence (e.g., 119).
3. The refrain psalm—each verse ending with the same refrain (e.g., 136).
4. The Hallelujah psalm—begins or closes with the ecstatic exclamation (e.g., 145–150).

In addition to the Psalms, a number of important biblical canticles were used regularly by the Hebrews in worship, and have been carried over into many Christian traditions as well. These are the best known:

1. Moses’ (and Miriam’s) song of victory over Pharaoh (Exod. 15).
2. Moses’ prayer before his death (Deut. 32).
3. The song of Hannah (1 Sam. 2), a prototype of Mary’s song in Luke 1:46–55.
4. The song of Habakkuk (Hab. 2).
5. Isaiah’s song (Isa. 26).
6. The prayer of Jonah in the fish’s belly (Jonah 2).
7. The prayer of Azariah—Benedictus es, Domine (Daniel 3, Douay version; Vulg., 3:26–49, Apocrypha).
8. The song of the three Hebrew children in the furnace—Benedicite omnia opera Domini (Dan. 3, Douay version; Vulg. 3:52–90, Apocrypha).

Worship and the Calendar

Historic Jewish worship acknowledged that God is the Lord of times and seasons in the ebb and flow of life. The sacrifices were observed in both the morning and evening every day in the tabernacle and later, in the temple. In addition, the Jewish family regularly offered prayers at home at stated hours and at mealtime. The Sabbath was a time for more exacting expressions of worship; it commemorated God’s rest from the acts of creation and was observed in obedience to his command. Finally, there were times of intensely celebrative or penitential worship: Passover, to commemorate their deliverance from Egypt; the Day of Atonement, at the beginning of the New Year; Pentecost, associated with the giving of the Law, at the corn harvest; and the Feast of Booths (tabernacles) as “harvest home.” As we will see later, most of these practices based on the calendar have been fulfilled in Christ and transformed into Christian worship.

Worship Music and the Experience of God

The Hebrews shared richly symbolic worship that appealed strongly to the senses. The music which accompanied the sacrifices was a conspicuous part of the sensory experience. Musical sound revealed the presence of God, as evidenced in the accounts of the ecstatic moments of Saul and Elisha, and also in the requirement that song-chant would always be the vehicle of the holy scriptures.

One occasion when God was pleased to reveal his presence through musical performance was the dedication of Solomon’s temple: Now when the priests came out of the holy place (for all the priests who were present had sacrificed themselves, without regard to their divisions; and all the Levitical singers, Asaph, Heman, and Jeduthun, their sons and kinsmen, arrayed in fine linen, with cymbals, harps, and lyres, stood east of the altar with a hundred and twenty priests who were trumpeters; and it was the duty of the trumpeters and singers to make themselves heard in unison in praise and thanksgiving to the Lord), and when the song was raised, with trumpets and cymbals and other musical instruments, in praise to the Lord, “For he is good, for his steadfast love endures for ever,” the house, the house of the Lord, was filled with a cloud, so that the priests could not stand to minister because of the cloud; for the glory of the Lord filled the house of God (2 Chron. 5:11–14).

Worship in the Synagogue and the Jewish Home

The tradition of synagogue worship is of uncertain origin. Some scholars surmise that Jewish laypersons gathered in remote parts of Palestine at the time of the regular sacrifices in the temple at Jerusalem; others guess that the practice may have begun among Jews who were captives in other lands. Because the traditional sacrifices could only be offered in the temple, “sacrifices of praise and prayer” were substituted for offerings of animals and grain. Synagogue worship was in full flower during the lifetime of Jesus and the early days of the Christian church. It is not surprising then that early Jewish Christians modeled their worship partly on what they had experienced in the synagogue.

Synagogue worship was essentially a Service of the Word; it centered on the ceremonial reading of the Scripture, especially the Torah and the prophets, followed by an explanation of their meaning in a homily. It should be understood that the synagogue service was essentially congregational; though the position of the rabbi (teacher) developed in its context, it was essentially a meeting of laypersons, who probably participated in the prayers, and also in the free discussion which might follow the Scripture lection (see Acts 17:17).

These then are the component parts of synagogue worship, most of which have come down to us from the earliest traditions.

  • Scripture Readings (Torah; the Prophets)
  • Homily, followed by discussion
  • Psalmody
  • The Kedusha, “Holy, Holy, Holy,” (Isa. 6:3)
  • Prayers (The Yotzer and the Ahabah, emphasizing the creative acts of God and his love for his people, ending with the Shema—“Hear, O Israel; the Lord our God is one Lord,” etc., a declaration of faith and a glad benediction, from Deut. 6:4–9, 11:13–21; Numbers 15:37–41)
  • The Eighteen Benedictions (expressions of praise, petitions for material and spiritual blessings, and intercessions for many people, concluded with a united “amen”)

It is not known when music entered synagogue worship, but it is surmised that certain Levitical singers may have continued to practice their art in the lay-oriented gathering. We do know that only one or two solo singers (cantors) were involved in a service. They chanted the Scripture readings, the Psalms, the post-biblical prayers (Benedictions), and, according to some scholars, certain “melismatic” songs which may have been similar both to the ecstatic music of earlier days and to the “spiritual songs” mentioned in Colossians 3:16 and Ephesians 5:19. The musical style must have been related to that of temple worship, though presumably no instruments were involved since they were associated only with animal sacrifices. It is also surmised that, in the congregational character of this gathering, all the worshipers joined in the psalms which they knew, and very frequently in a repeated refrain, a “Hallelujah” and an “amen.”

We make this latter assumption partly on the witness of Mark (14:26): “And when they had sung a hymn, they went out to the Mount of Olives.” On the occasion of the last supper of our Lord with his disciples, the hymn sung was possibly one of the “Egyptian Kings” Psalms (113–118), traditionally used in the observance of Passover. In the custom of a typical Jewish home, Jesus pronounced a blessing over a loaf of bread, broke it, and gave portions to all those around the table. Similarly, at the end of the meal, a Jewish host would take a cup of wine mixed with water, give thanks, and then pass it around for all to drink. So it was that at the Upper Room supper, Jesus transformed this traditional act of thanksgiving and made it new, instituting the Lord’s Supper, or Eucharist, which many Christians believe to be the most significant single act of worship. The full order of historic Christian liturgy was developed by uniting the pattern of Jewish synagogue worship with the Eucharist.

Modern Jewish services continue in synagogues, without significant change in the basic elements. (In the orthodox Jewish tradition, the singing is still largely cantoral and unaccompanied.) The feasts are still observed as in ancient times, with one significant addition: Hanukkah, “the festival of lights,” is celebrated in December to commemorate the rededication of the temple in the second-century b.c., following the victory over the Syrians under Antiochus IV. In connection with the cycle of annual worship centering in the festivals, a regular schedule of Scripture readings (the lectionary), psalms, and prayers was developed to support the emphasis of each season. (The close relationship between Jewish and early Christian activity in the developing of “propers” for daily worship is related in Werner, 50–101.)

The Byzantine Liturgy (Ninth Century)

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The Byzantine Liturgy is the product of a complex evolution that began before the time of Christ. Like its Western counterpart, the eucharistic service of the Eastern Orthodox churches consists of two parts. The first, the Liturgy of the Word, developed from the services of the Jewish synagogue. The second, the Liturgy of the Faithful, evolved from the prayer of blessing or bƒrakah of the Passover and other Jewish religious meals.

Introduction

Originally the Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of the Faithful were two separate services. By the fourth century, the two services had been combined. This is possibly due to the influence of the church in Jerusalem where, according to the pilgrim Egeria, the people gathered at Golgotha for the Liturgy of the Word and processed to the tomb of Christ for the Liturgy of the Faithful. Since other communities had only one church building, they imitated the church of Jerusalem by celebrating both services in the same place.

The Byzantine liturgy belongs to the West Syrian family of liturgies and is related to the third-century Apostolic Tradition, the fourth-century service found in Book VIII of The Apostolic Constitutions, and the Liturgy of St. James in use in Jerusalem by the fifth century. Although its roots are in Antioch, it reached its final form in Constantinople, the capital of the East Roman or Byzantine Empire. The great influence of the imperial city eventually led all churches of the East that adhered to the Council of Chalcedon to conform to its liturgical usage. In 1194 Theodore Balsamon, the Patriarch of Antioch and noted expert on canon law, declared that all Orthodox must follow the liturgical traditions of Constantinople. Today all but a few Western Rite Eastern Orthodox, as well as several groups of Eastern Rite Roman Catholics, follow the Byzantine liturgy. Since the liturgy of the Eastern church underwent only a few changes following the ninth century, much of the commentary below also applies to the contemporary eucharistic service of the Orthodox church.

By the end of the fourth century, the imperial church used two anaphoras, or prayers of consecration, the central prayer of the liturgy. One bore the name of St. John Chrysostom, Bishop of Constantinople (398–404), the other that of St. Basil, Bishop of Caesarea (370–379). Although some scholars have questioned this tradition, contemporary scholarship leans toward the opinion that both played a major role in compiling the texts attributed to them. It is probable that St. Gregory of Nazianzus introduced the liturgy of Cappadocia as revised by St. Basil, his close friend when he became Bishop of Constantinople in 380. It is also likely that St. John Chrysostom revised the liturgy of Antioch, his home, for use in Constantinople when he became its Bishop in 398. During the ninth century, the church of Constantinople used the Liturgy of St. Basil on most Sundays, reserving the shorter Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom for weekday celebrations. Thus our commentary will focus on the Liturgy of St. Basil.

Although it is possible to reconstruct the eucharistic service of Constantinople from the homilies of St. John Chrysostom or the seventh century Mystagogia of St. Maximus the Confessor, the Barberini Codex contains the earliest text of the Byzantine liturgy. Written in southern Italy between 788 and 789, this important document contains the text of the Liturgies of St. John Chrysostom and St. Basil, the Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts, and several other services. Unfortunately, the Barberini Codex only contains the prayers of the celebrant and omits the rubrics, litanies, antiphons, and other hymns. However, with the help of other sources such as a commentary on the liturgy written by St. Germanus, Patriarch of Constantinople between 715 and 730, it is possible to obtain a fairly close picture of the Divine Liturgy as celebrated in the imperial church during the ninth century.

The major theme of the Byzantine liturgy is the entrance of the faithful into the kingdom of God. The clergy and faithful also considered the liturgy a sacrifice or offering. As the principal act of worship of the church, it was a sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving. It was also the offering of bread and wine as symbols of the offering of creation to God by a grateful people. The believers of ancient Byzantium also considered the Eucharist a remembrance of the sacrifice of Christ. Finally, the faithful offered themselves to God by their participation in the liturgy.

The biblical accounts of the worship of heaven contained in the sixth chapter of Isaiah and the book of Revelation had a great influence on the development of Byzantine worship, which conscientiously imitated the worship of heaven. The building itself became an image of heaven. The robes of the clergy became images of the robes worn by the elders or presbyters during heavenly worship as portrayed in Revelation. Since both Isaiah and Revelation mention incense, it played a prominent role in Byzantine worship as a symbol of the sweetness of the kingdom of God and of the prayers of the saints ascending to heaven.

Just as the worship of Judaism and biblical texts describing worship in heaven greatly influenced the worship of the early church, the architecture of the biblical temple and synagogue also played a major role in the development of ecclesiastical architecture in the Eastern church. The earliest church buildings in Syria contain the same arrangement as the temple and synagogue. The area for the reading of the Scriptures became the pulpit or ambon. The seat of Moses evolved into the throne for the bishop. The Holy of Holies that contained the Ark of the Covenant in the temple and the scrolls of the Law in the synagogue became the sanctuary containing the altar or Holy Table. Significantly, Arabic-speaking Orthodox Christians refer to the sanctuary as the Heikel, from the Hebrew word for the Holy of Holies. In Constantinople, ecclesiastical architecture reached its highest development in Hagia Sophia, the Church of the Holy Wisdom, built by Emperor Justinian in the sixth century. A vast domed structure, the Church of Holy Wisdom set the pattern for all subsequent churches in the Eastern church. There were no pews, only a few seats for the elderly and infirm, as the faithful stood during the service, the men divided from the women. A large platform, the ambon, for the reading of the Scriptures, stood at the center of the nave. At the eastern end of the cathedral, a waist-high barrier with three doors, the ancestor of the modern iconostasis, separated the sanctuary from the nave. A path, the bema, also separated from the nave by waist-high barriers, led between the ambon and the sanctuary. A marble table, the altar or Holy Table, stood at the center of the sanctuary, which ended in an apse containing a series of semicircular steps, the synthronon, which provided seating for the clergy during readings and sermons. A circular building, the skeuophylakion, or sacristy, stood northeast of the main church.

Believers in ancient Byzantium considered the church building an image or icon of the kingdom of God. The dome represented the vault of the heavens. The image of Christ the Almighty, or Pantocrator, in the dome symbolized Christ ruling over the universe, especially his church, an image of the kingdom of God. The mosaics and paintings portrayed the saints and the entire company of heaven, which mystically joined the faithful for the celebration of the Eucharist, the banquet of the kingdom of God. The barrier between the nave and the sanctuary symbolized the mystery of the Eucharist and the division between heaven and earth. The Holy Table at the center of the sanctuary, which represented heaven, was an image of the throne of God.

The bishop, or patriarch who presided over the Eucharist, symbolized Christ, the true minister of the sacrament. The priests symbolized the twelve apostles, and the deacons and altar servers, the angels of heaven. Originally the clergy wore formal attire of a gentleman of the fourth century. However, as styles changed, they continued to dress in the traditional manner for services, leading to the development of specialized vestments. By the ninth century, the robes of the clergy had gained symbolic meaning. The bishop and priests wore an inner gown, the sticharion, symbolizing the robe of baptism. Over it they wore a stole, the epitrachelion, with both ends fastened together with a hole for the head, signifying the robe of Aaron and the cloth by which Christ was tied as he was taken to the cross. The large cape-like vestment, the phelonion, symbolized the cross carried by Christ to his Passion. On this, as a symbol of his role as chief shepherd, the bishop wore a large woolen stole, the omophorion, wrapped over his neck as a shepherd would wrap a wounded lamb around his neck as he carried it to safety. Deacons wore the sticharion with a thin stole, the orarion, which symbolized the wings of angels. Thus the celebrant, whether patriarch, bishop, or priest, symbolized Christ standing before the throne of God, while the deacons symbolized the angels who act as messengers between heaven and earth.

By the ninth century, commentators began to interpret the liturgy as an icon in words and action of the mystery of salvation through Christ. St. Maximus the Confessor in the seventh century and St. Germanus built on earlier works by St. Cyril of Jerusalem (315–386) the Pseudo-Dionysius in the fifth or sixth century, and Theodore of Mopsuestia (c. 350–427), to interpret every part of the service as an image of some aspect of the saving activity of Christ. As a result of their veneration of pictorial icons as a manifestation of the presence of Christ or the saint on the icon, the believers saw the liturgy as a means to transcend time and space to enter the kingdom of heaven and the presence of the saving acts of Christ. When they entered the church, they mystically left the sinful world and entered the presence of God in heaven. When they kissed the Gospel Book, it was as if they had kissed Christ himself. When they touched the robes of the clergy during the Great Entrance, it was as if they had touched the seamless robe of the Savior. Thus, although we use the word “symbol” in English, it should be understood that to the clergy and faithful of ancient Constantinople, a symbol was not something unreal, but an image through which ultimate reality could be perceived.

Meanwhile, an emphasis on mystery spread from Syria to Constantinople. Curtains in the ancient Syrian churches hid the high points of the service from the eyes of the people, to show the sacred and mysterious nature of the Eucharist. Although there apparently was no curtain in Constantinople during the ninth century, this stress on mystery led the clergy to say many prayers of the service in a low voice. By the fourteenth century, this practice would lead to the expansion of the barrier between the sanctuary and the nave into the modern iconostasis. As a result, the deacon assumed an important role as a bridge between the faithful and the mystery taking place at the altar by standing outside the sanctuary as he called the faithful to pay attention during important parts of the service and led them in a series of hymns and litanies while the celebrant said the prayers inside the sanctuary.

By the ninth century, the Divine Liturgy consisted of several sections. These were

I.     The Rite of Preparation
II.     The Liturgy of the Word or Synaxis
a.     The Antiphons
b.     The Entrance of the clergy
c.     The Readings
d.     The Dismissal of the catechumens
III.     The Liturgy of the Faithful
a.     The Prayers of the faithful
b.     The Great Entrance
c.     The Kiss of Peace and Creed
d.     The Anaphora
e.     The Lord’s Prayer and Communion
f.     The Final Prayers and Dismissal

The Divine Liturgy of St. Basil

The text below is a reconstruction of the Liturgy of St. Basil as celebrated in Constantinople in the ninth century. Since the ancient texts and commentaries are incomplete, some parts of the contemporary Orthodox liturgy are included although they are not found in ninth-century manuscripts. It is highly possible that they were a part of the liturgy by the ninth century, although they may have been added later. The translations used to come from texts authorized for use by the Antiochian Evangelical Orthodox Mission, with additions from other service books of the Antiochian Archdiocese.

THE RITE OF PREPARATION
Before the beginning of the Liturgy, the clergy gather in the sacristy to vest and prepare the bread and wine. After a deacon gives the bread to a priest, he cuts it with the lance and then makes the sign of the cross over it with the lance and says:
He was led as a sheep to the slaughter. And as a spotless lamb is dumb before his shearer …
As he puts the bread on the diskos, the priest says:
… so opened he not his mouth. In his humiliation, his judgment was taken away. And for his generation, who shall declare it? For his life is taken away from the earth.
As he pours water and wine in the chalice, the priest says:
One of the soldiers with a spear pierced his side, and immediately there came forth blood and water, and he that saw it bore witness, and his witness is true.
The priest then says:
There are three that bear witness, the Spirit and the water and the blood, and the three are one. Now and ever and unto ages of ages. Amen.
The priest censes the gifts and says:
O God our God, who did send forth the heavenly Bread, the food of the whole world, our Lord and God Jesus Christ, our Savior and Redeemer and Benefactor, blessing and sanctifying us: Bless this Oblation and receive it upon your altar above the heavens. Remember, as you are good and love mankind, those who brought this offering, and those for whom they brought it; and preserve us blameless in the celebration of your holy Mysteries; for sanctified and glorified is your most honorable and majestic name, of the Father and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit; now and ever and unto ages of ages. Amen.

Commentary: Originally a deacon prepared the gifts. However, by the ninth century, a priest prepared them. The church considered Isaiah 54:7–8 a prophecy of the crucifixion of Christ. The small lance symbolized the spear that the soldier thrust in the side of Christ. By the ninth century, the water and wine symbolized the water and blood that flowed from the side of Christ as is seen by the quote from St. John 19:34–35. Thus the Rite of Preparation had become a symbol of the sacrificial death of Christ. The Rite of Preparation, or Proskomedia, became more elaborate until it reached its present form by the fourteenth century.

THE ANTIPHONS
While the faithful wait for the entrance of the celebrant, they sing the antiphons. Before each antiphon one of the priests prays the prayer of the antiphon.

Commentary: At times, the faithful gathered at a church or other suitable site in the city for a short service of prayers and intercession and processed to the church being used for the liturgy. During the procession, chanters sang psalms and the people responded with short, easily remembered refrains. Eventually, they began to chant psalms and refrains, pausing for three prayers as they waited for the arrival of the clergy and the beginning of the liturgy. By the ninth century, the Psalms were considered a commemoration of the Old Testament prophecies of the coming of Christ.

The First Antiphon
Deacon: Let us pray to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Priest: O Lord our God, Whose power is unimaginable and Whose glory is inconceivable, Whose mercy is immeasurable and Whose love for mankind is beyond all words, in Your compassion, O Lord, look down on us and on this holy house, and grant us and those who are praying with us the riches of Your mercy and compassion. For to You are due all glory, honor, and worship, to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages.
People: Amen.
The people then sing Psalm 91 with the following refrain: Through the prayers of the Mother of God, O Savior, save us.

The Second Antiphon
Deacon: Let us pray to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Priest: O Lord our God, save Your people and bless Your inheritance. Guard the fullness of Your Church, sanctify those who love the beauty of Your House, glorify them by Your divine power and do not forsake us who hope in You. For Yours is the dominion and the Kingdom and the power and the glory of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages.
People: Amen.
The People then sing Psalm 92 with the following refrain: O Son of God, Who rose from the dead, save us who sing to You, Alleluia!

The Third Antiphon
Deacon: Let us pray to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Priest: O Lord, Who has given us the grace to pray together in peace and harmony, and Who promise to grant the requests of two or three who agree in Your Name, fulfill even now the petitions of Your servants as is best for us, giving us in this age the knowledge of Your truth, and in the age to come, eternal life. For You are good, O our God, and You love mankind, and we send up glory to You, to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages.
The People then sing Psalm 93 with the following refrain: O Only-begotten Son and Word of God, who is immortal, yet did deign for our salvation to be incarnate of the holy Theotokos and ever-virgin Mary, and without change was made man; and was crucified also, O Christ our God, and by your death did Death subdue; who is one of the Holy Trinity, glorified together with the Father and the Holy Spirit: save us.

Commentary: Although usually attributed to the Emperor Justinian, (483–565) some consider Severus (c. 465–538) the Monophysite Patriarch of Antioch, the author of the hymn “Only-begotten Son of God.” In any case, it entered the service around 536 and is a summary of the doctrine of the incarnation of Christ as perfect God and perfect man.

Originally, the faithful waited outside the church or in the narthex for the arrival of the clergy. When the clergy entered the nave, the faithful followed, symbolizing the entrance into the kingdom of God. By the ninth century, the faithful had already gathered in the nave before the beginning of the service. The clergy, led by a deacon carrying the Gospel Book, began the Liturgy with a solemn entrance through the nave into the sanctuary accompanied by altar servers bearing the cross, candles, and incense during the chanting of the Third Antiphon. By the ninth century, this Entrance, the origin of the contemporary Little Entrance, symbolized the beginning of the public ministry of Christ. The deacon placed the Gospel on the Holy Table, symbolizing the enthronement of Christ. The clergy then assumed their seats on the synthronon, a symbol of the ascension of Christ.

The Entrance. While the people sing the third antiphon, the celebrant and other clergy stand before the doors leading from the narthex into the nave for the prayer of the Entrance:
Celebrant (in a low voice): O Sovereign Lord, our God, Who appointed in heaven the orders and armies of angels and archangels for the service of Your glory, grant that the holy angels may enter with us, to serve and glorify Your goodness with us. For to You are due all glory, honor, and worship, to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages.
Then led by a deacon carrying the Gospel Book, the clergy enter in procession through the nave into the sanctuary accompanied by altar servers bearing the cross, candles, and incense as the people complete the hymn, “O Only-begotten Son.… ” The celebrant and other clergy enter the sanctuary and take their seats on the synthronon.

THE LITURGY OF THE WORD
The Liturgy of the Word is also called the Synaxis, which means “gathering” or “assembly.” Orthodox considered the church a eucharistic assembly. By entering the church building to assemble for worship, the faithful symbolically left the sinful world to enter the kingdom of God.

The Great Litany and Trisagion
Ultimately stemming from the Prayer of Intercession of the Jewish service, the litany form of prayer was fully developed by the time of the Apostolic Constitutions. Originally chanted by the deacon with responses by the faithful, following the readings and sermon, the Great Litany had moved to a position following the Entrance and before the Trisagion sometime during the ninth century. Meanwhile, the clergy prayed the prayer of the Trisagion.

Deacon: In peace, let us pray to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: For the peace from above and for the salvation of our souls, let us pray to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: For the peace of the whole world, for the stability of the holy churches of God, and for the union of all, let us pray to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: For this holy house and for all who enter with faith, reverence, and the fear of God, let us pray to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: For our Bishop (N.) for the honorable priests and deacons in Christ, and for all the clergy and the people, let us pray to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: For this country and for every authority and power within it, let us pray to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: For this city, for every city and country, and for the faithful living in them, let us pray to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: For seasonable weather, for an abundance of the fruits of the earth, and for peaceful times, let us pray to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: For those who travel by land, air, and sea, the sick and suffering, those under persecution, and for their deliverance, let us pray to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: For our deliverance from all affliction, anger, danger, and need, let us pray to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: Help us, save us, have mercy on us and keep us, O God, by Your grace.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: Remembering our most holy, most pure, most blessed, and glorious Lady, the Mother of God, and Ever-virgin Mary, with all the saints, let us commit ourselves and each other and all our life unto Christ our God.
People: To You, O Lord.
Celebrant (in a low voice): O Holy God, Who rests in the saints, Who with the Trisagion Hymn are praised by the Seraphim, glorified by the Cherubim and worshipped by all the heavenly powers, Who out of nothing brought all things into being, Who created man in Your image and likeness and adorned him with every gift of Your grace, Who give wisdom and understanding to anyone asking for them, and Who does not disregard the sinner, but have appointed repentance for salvation, Who has made us Your humble and unworthy servants, even at this hour, to stand before the glory of Your holy altar, and to offer You the worship and praise due to You: Accept, O Lord, from the mouths of us sinners the Trisagion Hymn and visit us in Your goodness. Forgive us every transgression, whether voluntary or involuntary. Sanctify our souls and bodies, grant that we may worship You in holiness all the days of our life, through the intercessions of the Holy Mother of God and of all the saints who have pleased You from the beginning. For You are holy, O our God, and we send up glory to You, to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit, now and ever …
Deacon:     … and unto ages of ages.
People: Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immortal One, have mercy on us. Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immortal One, have mercy on us. Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immortal One, have mercy on us. Glory to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit. Now and ever and unto ages of ages. Amen. Holy Immortal One, have mercy on us. Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immortal One, have mercy on us.

Commentary: Originally sung during the Entrance, the Thrice-Holy Hymn, or Trisagion, dates at least back to the time of Patriarch Proclus (434–446). According to popular legend, while the patriarch led the people in prayers for deliverance from an earthquake, a young boy was carried up into heaven, where he heard the angels singing this hymn. Thus, the faithful believed that they joined the choirs of heaven when they sang the Trisagion, another indication of the view of the Eucharist as an ascent to heaven and participation in the worship of the angels.

There were originally readings from the Old Testament, the Epistles, and the Gospels. However, only the Epistle and Gospel remained by the ninth century. The Prokeimenon, a short verse from the Psalms sung before the Epistle, is a remnant of the Psalm sung between the Old Testament and Epistle readings. St. Germanus considered the Prokeimenon a symbol of the prophecies of the coming of Christ and the Gospel a symbol of the revelation of God through Christ. As the deacon carried the Gospel to the ambon, the faithful venerated the book as a way to venerate Christ Himself, symbolized by the elaborately decorated book.

The Ektenia of Fervent Supplication
Commentary: This Litany is called “of Fervent Supplication” because of the triple response, “Lord, have mercy”.
Text: A deacon stands outside of the sanctuary to lead the people in the Ektenia of Fervent Supplication.
Deacon: Let us say with our soul and with our mind, let us say: O Lord Almighty, the God of our fathers, we pray thee, hearken and have mercy.
People: Lord, have mercy. Lord, have mercy. Lord, have mercy.
Deacon:     Have mercy upon us, O God, according to thy great goodness, we pray thee hearken and have mercy.
People: Lord, have mercy. Lord, have mercy. Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: Again we pray for pious and Orthodox Christians; for our Celebrant (N.); for Priests, deacons, and all other clergies; and for all our brethren in Christ.
People: Lord, have mercy. Lord, have mercy. Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: Again we pray for mercy, life, peace, health, salvation, and visitation for the servants of God (N.N.), and for the pardon and remission of their sins.
People: Lord, have mercy. Lord, have mercy. Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: Again we pray for the blessed and ever-memorable founders of this holy temple; and for all our fathers and brethren, the Orthodox departed this life before us, who here and in all the world lies asleep in the Lord, and for the Orthodox servant(s) of God departed this life (N.N.), and for the pardon and remission of their sins.
People: Lord, have mercy. Lord, have mercy. Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: Again we pray for those who bear fruit and do good works in this holy and all-venerable Temple, and for all the people here present who await thy great and rich mercy.
People: Lord, have mercy. Lord, have mercy. Lord, have mercy.
Celebrant (in a low voice): O Lord our God, accept this fervent supplication of your servants, and have mercy upon us according to the multitude of your mercy; and send down your compassion upon us and upon all your people, who await the rich mercy that comes from you.
(aloud) For you are a merciful God who loves mankind, and to you, we ascribe glory to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages.
People: Amen.

The Litany of the Catechumens

A deacon stands outside of the sanctuary to lead the people in the Litany of the Catechumens.
Deacon: Pray to the Lord, you catechumens.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: You faithful, pray unto the Lord for the catechumens, that the Lord will have mercy on them.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: That He will teach them the word of truth.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: That He will reveal to them the Gospel of righteousness.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: That He will unite them to His Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: Help them; save them; have mercy upon them; and keep them, O God, by your grace.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: You catechumens, bow your heads unto the Lord.
People: To you, O Lord.
Celebrant (in a low voice): O Lord our God, Who dwell in the heavens and have regard for all Your works: Look upon your servants the catechumens, who have bowed their necks before You. Give them Your light yoke; make them honorable members of Your holy Church; count them worthy of the laver of regeneration, the remission of sins, and the robe of incorruption, in the knowledge of You, our true God. That with us they may glorify Your all-honorable and majestic name, of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages.
People: Amen.
Deacon: As many as are catechumens, depart. Let none of the catechumens remain.

Commentary: Since ancient times, the church considered the Eucharist too sacred for non-Christians. Significantly, St. Cyril, the fourth-century Bishop of Jerusalem, did not describe either the rite or the significance of the Eucharist to those receiving instruction until after they had been baptized. Thus those preparing for baptism, the catechumens, left the assembly following the Liturgy of the Word.

THE LITURGY OF THE FAITHFUL

The First Prayer of the Faithful
Deacon:     Let us pray to the Lord.
People:     Lord, have mercy.
Celebrant:     You, O Lord have shown us this great mystery of salvation, You have accounted us, the humble and unworthy servants, worthy to be ministrants of your holy Altar. Enable us with the power of your Holy Spirit for this service, that standing uncondemned before your holy glory, we may offer unto you a sacrifice of praise; for you are he that works all things in all men; grant, O Lord, that our sacrifice may be acceptable and well-pleasing in your sight, for our own sins, and for the errors of the people; for unto you are due all glory, honor, and worship; to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages.
People:     Amen.

The Second Prayer of the Faithful
Deacon:     In peace, let us pray to the Lord.
People:     Lord, have mercy.
Deacon:     For the peace from above and for the salvation of our souls, let us pray to the Lord.
People:     Lord, have mercy.
Deacon:     For the peace of the whole world, for the stability of the holy churches of God, and for the union of all, let us pray to the Lord.
People:     Lord, have mercy.
Deacon:     For this holy house and for all who enter with faith, reverence, and the fear of God, let us pray to the Lord.
People:     Lord, have mercy.
Deacon:     For our Bishop (N.) for the honorable priests and deacons in Christ, and for all the clergy and the people, let us pray to the Lord.
People:     Lord, have mercy.
Deacon:     For this country and for every authority and power within it, let us pray to the Lord.
People:     Lord, have mercy.
Deacon:     For this city, for every city and country, and for the faithful living in them, let us pray to the Lord.
People:     Lord, have mercy.
Deacon:     For seasonable weather, for an abundance of the fruits of the earth, and for peaceful times, let us pray to the Lord.
People:     Lord, have mercy.
Deacon:     For those who travel by land, air, and sea, the sick and suffering, those under persecution and for their deliverance, let us pray to the Lord.
People:     Lord, have mercy.
Deacon:     For our deliverance from all affliction, anger, danger, and need, let us pray to the Lord.
People:     Lord, have mercy.
Deacon:     Help us, save us, have mercy on us and keep us, O God, by Your grace.
People:     Lord, have mercy.
Deacon:     Remembering our most holy, most pure, most blessed and glorious Lady, the Mother of God, and Ever-virgin Mary, with all the saints, let us commit ourselves and each other and all our life unto Christ our God.
People:     To You, O Lord.
People:     Lord, have mercy.
Celebrant (in a low voice): O God, who in pity and compassion has visited our lowliness; who has set us, thy humble and sinful and unworthy servants, before your holy glory, to minister at your holy Altar: Strengthen us by the power of your Holy Spirit for this service, and grant us utterance in the opening of our mouth, to invoke the grace of your Holy Spirit upon the gifts about to be set before you. That guarded always by your might we may ascribe glory to you: to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages.
People:     Amen.

Meanwhile, the clergy leave their seats and gather around the Holy Table, over which they spread a large cloth, the eiliton.

Commentary: By the ninth century the eiliton had become a symbol of the winding-sheet placed on the body of Christ for his burial.

The Great Entrance

The Hymn of the Cherubim

The people chant Psalm 24:7–10 with The Hymn of the Cherubim as a refrain.

Let us, who mystically represent the Cherubim, and who sing the Thrice-Holy Hymn to the Life-creating Trinity, lay aside all earthly cares that we may receive the King of all, who comes invisibly upborne by the Angelic Hosts. Alleluia. Alleluia. Alleluia.

Commentary: The Hymn of the Cherubim is another indication of the view of the Eucharist as a participation in the worship of heaven. The Emperor Justinian II ordered its singing in about 573.

Text: The celebrant washes his hands and says the Prayer of The Hymn of the Cherubim.

Celebrant (in a low voice): No one bound by fleshly desires and pleasures is worthy to approach or come near or minister before You, the King of glory. For to serve You is great and awesome, even to the Heavenly Powers themselves. Yet because of Your unspeakable and immeasurable love for mankind, You became man without undergoing change or alteration. And taking the title High Priest, You, as Lord of all, have committed to us the celebration of this liturgical and unbloody sacrifice. For You alone, O Lord our God, rule over all things in heaven and earth, You Who are seated upon the throne of the Cherubim and are Lord of the Seraphim and King of Israel, Who alone are holy and rest in the saints. Therefore I implore You, Who alone are good and ready to hear: Look upon me, Your sinful and unprofitable servant, and cleanse my soul and heart from an evil conscience. And enable me by the power of Your Holy Spirit, clothed with the grace of the priesthood, to stand before this, Your holy Table, and to consecrate Your holy and spotless Body and precious Blood. For to You I come bowing my neck, and I pray to You: Do not turn away Your face from me, nor reject me from among Your children, but make me, Your sinful and unworthy servant, worthy to offer these Gifts to You. For You alone are the Offerer and the Offered, the Receiver and the Distributed, O Christ our God, and we send up glory to You, together with Your Father Who is without beginning, and Your all-holy, good, and life-giving Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages. Amen.

Meanwhile, the deacons bring the bread and wine in procession through the nave to the sanctuary, escorted by candles, incense, and the liturgical fans. After they place them on the Holy Table, the veils are placed over them, and they are censed.

Commentary: Originally a simple utilitarian act, the Great Entrance had assumed major significance by the ninth century. The elaborate procession became one of the high points of the Liturgy. When present, the emperor met the procession and escorted it to the sanctuary. The faithful touched the vestments of the clergy, as the woman with the hemorrhage touched the robe of Christ. Sometimes, parents would place their children in the path of the procession so that the clergy would step over them. Popular devotion during the Great Entrance was so great that Patriarch Eutychinus (552–555) warned the faithful lest they worship unconsecrated the bread and wine. By the ninth century, the faithful considered the Great Entrance an image of the procession of Christ to Calvary. The liturgical fans symbolized the Seraphim. The placing of the vessels on the Holy Table represented the entombment of Christ. The small veils symbolized the burial cloths of Christ and the large veil, the stone before the tomb of Christ. The incense symbolized the Holy Spirit and the spices used to anoint the body of the dead Savior.

Celebrant (in a low voice): Remember me, brother and fellow minister.

Commentary: The dialogue following the Entrance did not take its modern form until the Middle Ages. However, from ancient times the celebrant asked for the prayers of his fellow ministers.

Deacon (in a low voice): May the Lord God remember your priesthood in His Kingdom.
Celebrant (in a low voice): Pray for me, my fellow minister.
Deacon (in a low voice): May the Holy Spirit descend on you, and the power of the Most High overshadow you.
Celebrant (in a low voice): May the Holy Spirit Himself minister together with us all the days of our life.
Deacon (in a low voice): Remember me, holy Master.
Celebrant (in a low voice): May the Lord God remember you in His Kingdom always, now and ever and unto ages of ages.

The celebrant then prays the prayer of the Prothesis.

Celebrant (in a low voice): O Lord our God, Who has created us and brought us into this life; Who have shown us the ways to salvation, and have given us the revelation of heavenly mysteries; You have appointed us to this service in the power of Your Holy Spirit; graciously grant us, O Lord, to be ministers of Your New Covenant, and servants of Your holy mysteries. Through the greatness of Your mercy, accept us as we approach Your holy altar, so that we may be worthy to offer to You this spiritual and unbloody sacrifice for our own sins and for the errors of the people. Receive it upon Your holy and ideal altar above the heavens as sweet fragrance, and send down upon us in return the grace of Your Holy Spirit. Look upon us, O God, and behold this our service. Accept it as You accepted the gifts of Abel, the sacrifices of Noah, the whole burnt offerings of Abraham, the priestly offices of Moses and Aaron, and the peace offerings of Samuel. Even as You accepted this true worship from the hands of Your holy apostles, O Lord, so now in Your goodness, accept these gifts from the hands of us sinners. Count us worthy to serve without offense at Your holy altar, so that we may receive the reward of wise and faithful stewards on the awesome day of Your just retribution. Through the mercies of Your Only-begotten Son, with Whom You are blessed, together with Your all-holy, good, and life-giving Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages. Amen.

The Kiss of Peace
Celebrant: Peace be to all.
People: And to your spirit.
Deacon: Let us love one another that with one accord we may confess:
People: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, Blessed Trinity, Consubstantial, Co-eternal, Undivided Trinity.

The clergy and people then exchange the kiss of peace.

Commentary: The clergy and faithful exchanged the kiss of peace within their own rank: clergy with clergy, men with men, and women with women. The kiss of peace is a symbol that all must leave all animosity behind them as they unite in love with the company of heaven as they worship at the throne of God.

The Creed

Deacon: The Doors! The Doors! In wisdom, let us attend!

Commentary: The cry, “The doors, the doors,” is a reminder that the doors to the church must be closed as only the faithful may experience the mystery of the Eucharist. By the ninth century, the removal of the veils had become a symbol of the removal of the stone before the tomb of Christ. As all sang the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, the clergy waved the aer over the elements. Originally a utilitarian act to keep insects away, this became a symbol of the earthquake that accompanied the resurrection of Christ.

Text: The celebrant removes the veils over the gifts. The clergy then wave them over the gifts while the people recite the Creed.

People: I believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible; And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Only-begotten, Begotten of the Father before all worlds; Light of Light, Very God of Very God, Begotten, not made; of one essence with the Father, by Whom all things were made: Who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven, was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary, and was made man; And was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered and was buried; And the third day He rose again, according to the Scriptures; And ascended into heaven, and sits at the right hand of the Father, And He shall come again with glory to judge the living and the dead, Whose Kingdom shall have no end. And I believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, and Giver of Life, Who proceeds from the Father, Who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified, Who spoke by the Prophets; And I believe in One Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. I acknowledge one Baptism for the remission of sins. I look for the Resurrection of the dead and the Life of the world to come. Amen.

Commentary: Peter the Fuller, the Monophysite Patriarch of Antioch (470), introduced the Creed in the Liturgy in Antioch as a sign of his orthodoxy. Patriarch Timothy of Constantinople (511–518), also a Monophysite, added the Creed to the Liturgy as a demonstration of his own orthodoxy.

The Anaphora of St. Basil

Deacon: Let us stand well! Let us stand with fear! Let us attend that we may offer the holy offering in peace.
People: An offering of peace! A sacrifice of praise!
Celebrant: The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, the love of God the Father, and the communion of the Holy Spirit be with you all.
People: And with your spirit.
Celebrant: Let us lift up our hearts.
People: We lift them up unto the Lord.
Celebrant: Let us give thanks unto the Lord.
People: It is fitting and right.

Commentary: This dialogue dates at least as far back as the third-century Apostolic Tradition. It may stem from the dialogue at the beginning of the prayer of blessing (bƒrakah) of the Passover and other religious meals in the Jewish tradition. The faithful are reminded that they must leave behind the concerns of the world as they elevate their hearts and minds to heavenly things, as they prepare for the most sacred moments of the Liturgy. The celebrant invites the faithful to give thanks to the Lord, as the Eucharist is the great thanksgiving for the mystery of salvation.

Celebrant (in a low voice): O truly existing One, Master, Lord, God, almighty and adorable Father, how right it is, and befitting the majesty of Your holiness, to praise You, to sing to You, to bless You, to worship You, and to glorify You. You alone are truly God, and we offer You this spiritual worship with a humble spirit and a contrite heart. You have given us the knowledge of Your truth. Who is worthy to speak of Your mighty deeds, or make all Your praises heard? O Master of all things, Lord of heaven and earth, and of all creation, both visible and invisible, You are seated upon the throne of glory and behold the depths. You are without beginning, invisible, incomprehensible, indescribable, changeless. O Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the great God and Savior, our Hope, Who is the image of Your goodness, the seal equal to its model, Who shows You in Himself: the Father, Living Word, true God before all ages, Wisdom, Life, Sanctification, Power, true Light: Through You the Holy Spirit was manifested, the Spirit of truth, the gift of adoption, the pledge of our future inheritance, the first-fruits of eternal good things, the life-giving Power, the fountain of holiness; through whom every rational and spiritual creature is made capable to worship You and give You eternal glorification, for all things are Your servants. You are praised by the angels, the archangels, the thrones, the dominions, the principalities, the authorities, the powers, and the many-eyed cherubim. The seraphim are around You, each having six wings: with two they veil their face, with two their feet; and with two they fly, continually crying out to one another with mouths that do not grow tired, in praises which are never silent, (aloud) singing, proclaiming, shouting the hymn of victory:
People: Holy! Holy! Holy! Lord of Hosts! Heaven and earth are filled with Your glory. Hosanna in the highest! Blessed is He Who comes in the Name of the Lord! Hosanna in the highest!

Commentary: The reference to the company of heaven and the Thrice-Holy Hymn, stemming in part from Isaiah 6:3, are manifestations of the belief that the clergy and faithful join the worship of the angels around the throne of God in heaven during the Liturgy. It ends with the words “the crowd shouted,” from Psalm 118:25–26, as Christ entered Jerusalem, as the faithful prepare to welcome Christ who comes through the Eucharist.

Text:

Celebrant (in a low voice): With these blessed powers, O Master and lover of mankind, we sinners also cry aloud and say: You are Holy, truly most Holy, and there is no limit to the majesty of Your holiness. You are just in all Your works, for in righteousness and true judgment, You have ordered all things for us. When You had created man by taking dust from the earth and honored him with Your own image, O God, You placed him in the paradise of delight, promising him eternal life and the enjoyment of everlasting good things in the observance of Your commandments. But when man disobeyed You, the true God Who created him, and was led astray by the deceit of the serpent, and died in his own transgressions, You banished him, in Your righteous judgment, from paradise into this world. You caused him to return to the earth from which he was taken, yet provided for him the salvation of regeneration in Your Christ Himself. For You did not turn away forever from the creature You made, O Good One, and You did not forget the work of Your hands. Through the tender compassion of Your mercy, You visited us in manifold ways: You sent us the prophets; You worked mighty wonders through Your Saints who were pleasing to You in every generation. You have spoken to us through the mouths of Your servants the prophets, foretelling to us the salvation to come. You gave us the law to help us; You appointed angels to guard us. And when the fulness of time came, You spoke to us through Your Son Himself, by Whom You also made the ages. He is the Radiance of Your glory and the Image of Your Person. He upholds all things by the word of His Power. He did not think it robbery to be equal to You, God, and Father. He was God before the ages, yet He appeared on earth and lived among men. He took flesh from a holy Virgin; He emptied Himself, taking the form of a slave. He conformed Himself to the body of our lowliness in order to conform us to the image of His glory. For as by man sin entered into the world, and by sin, death, it pleased Your Only-begotten Son, Who is in Your bosom, God and Father, Who was born of a woman, the Holy Mother of God and Ever-virgin Mary, Who was born under the law, to condemn sin in His flesh, so that we who died in Adam might be brought to life in Him Your Christ. He lived as a citizen in this world and gave us commandments of salvation. He released us from the waywardness of idols and brought us into the knowledge of You, the true God and Father. He won us for Himself as His own chosen people, a royal priesthood, a holy nation. After purifying us with water and sanctifying us with the Holy Spirit, He gave Himself over in exchange for death, in which we were held captive, sold by sin. After descending into hell through the cross, that He might fill all things with Himself, He loosed the bonds of death; He rose on the third day and opened to all flesh the path of resurrection from the dead since it was not possible for the Author of Life to be dominated by corruption. So He became the firstfruits of those who sleep, the firstborn from among the dead, that He might truly be the first of all things. He ascended into heaven and sits at the right hand of Your majesty on high, and He will come to render to everyone according to his works. And as a memorial of His saving passion, He has left us these things, which we have presented to You according to His command. For when He was about to go forth to His voluntary, blameless, and life-giving death, on the night in which He gave Himself for the life of the world, He took bread into His holy and spotless hands, and when He had presented it to You, His God and Father, He gave thanks, blessed, sanctified, broke it, and (aloud) gave it to His holy disciples and apostles, saying: Take, eat, this is my body which is broken for you, for the remission of sins.

People: Amen.
Celebrant (in a low voice): Likewise He took the cup of the fruit of the vine and mingled it, gave thanks, blessed and sanctified it, and gave it to His holy disciples and apostles, saying:
(aloud) Drink of this, all of you! This is my blood of the new covenant, shed for you and for many, for the remission of sins.
People: Amen.
Celebrant (in a low voice): Do this as a memorial of Me, for as often as you eat this Bread and drink this Cup, you announce My death and confess My resurrection. Therefore, O Master, mindful of His saving passion and life-giving cross, His burial for three days and resurrection from the dead, His ascension into heaven and sitting at Your right hand, O God and Father, and His glorious and awesome second coming, (aloud) we offer You Your own, from what is Your own, for everyone and for everything.

Commentary: The memorial of the sacrifice of Christ, or amamnesis, is a feature of all ancient liturgies. It is a reminder that the Eucharist is a memorial of the passion of Christ.

People: We praise You. We bless You. We give thanks to You, O Lord. And we pray unto You, our God.

The Epiklèsis
While the celebrant said the Anaphora in a low voice, the people sang hymns related to the meaning of the central prayer of the Liturgy.

Celebrant (in a low voice): Therefore, all-holy Master, we also, Your sinful and unworthy servants, whom You have considered worthy to serve at Your holy Altar, not because of our own righteousness, for we have nothing good on earth, but because of Your mercies and compassion, which You have so richly poured out on us, now approach Your holy altar with boldness, and presenting the signs of the holy Body and Blood of Your Christ, we beg You and call upon You, O Holy of Holies, by the favor of Your goodness, to cause Your Holy Spirit to descend upon us and upon these gifts now offered,
Deacon: Bless Master, the Holy Bread.
Celebrant: That He may show us this Bread to be the precious Body of our Lord, God, and Savior, Jesus Christ.
Deacon: Amen. Bless Master the Holy Cup.
Celebrant: And this Cup to be the precious Blood of our Lord, God, and Savior Jesus Christ.
Deacon: Amen. Bless both, Master.
Celebrant: Shed for the life of the world.
Deacon: Amen. Amen. Amen.

Commentary: All stood or prostrated themselves in silent awe as the celebrant prayed the Epiklesis, an invocation of the Holy Spirit to descend and transform the bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Christ. Although the Eastern church, which emphasized the role of the Holy Spirit in the mystery of the Eucharist, avoided a rationalistic explanation of the exact nature of the change, all believed that the bread and wine became the actual body and blood of the risen Christ.

The Commemoration of the Departed and Living

Celebrant (in a low voice): And unite all of us to one another, who partake of the one Bread and the one Cup in the communion of the one Holy Spirit. Grant that none of us will partake of the Holy Body and Blood of Your Christ for judgment and condemnation. Instead, may we find mercy and grace with all the saints that have been pleasing to You in all the ages: the ancestors, the fathers, the patriarchs, the prophets, the apostles, the preachers, the evangelists, the martyrs, the confessors, the teachers, and every righteous spirit perfected in the faith, (aloud) especially with our most holy, most pure, most blessed and glorious lady, the Mother of God, Ever-virgin Mary.

Commentary: The commemorations are a remnant of the diptychs, originally read by a deacon.

Text: A deacon censes the gifts, while other deacons wave the fans. Meanwhile the celebrant blesses the antidoron.

People: In you rejoices, O full of grace all creation, the angelic hosts, and the race of men, O hallowed Temple and super-sensual Paradise, the glory of Virgins of whom God was incarnate and became a little child, even our God who is before all ages; for he made your womb a throne, and yours he made more spacious than the heavens. In you rejoices, O full of grace, all creation. Glory to you.

Commentary: Originally a utilitarian act to drive away insects, the fans became a symbol of the seraphim and cherubim, who fly around the throne of God in heaven. The hymn to the Theotokos (“God-bearer”), or Megalynarion, entered the Byzantine Liturgy around the turn of the sixth century. The people began to sing it to fill the time taken for the commemorations when the celebrant began to say the anaphora in a low voice. The antidoron, which means “instead of the gifts,” is the bread that remained after the preparation. It was blessed for distribution to the faithful.

Celebrant (in a low voice): May we also find grace and mercy with the holy prophet, forerunner and baptist John, the holy apostles worthy of all praise, St. (N.) whose memory we celebrate, and with all Your saints. Through their prayers, be pleased to protect us, O God. We offer You this spiritual worship for the salvation, protection, and remission of sins of the servants of God (N.N.). Remember all those who have fallen asleep before us in the hope of resurrection to eternal life, especially (N.N.), and grant them rest, O our God, in a place of light where there is no sighing or sorrow, where the light of Your countenance shines. Again we entreat You: Remember, O Lord, Your Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church, from one end of the inhabited earth to the other, and grant peace to her whom You have purchased with the precious Blood of Your Christ, and strengthen this holy house until the end of the world. Remember, O Lord, those who have brought You these gifts, those for whom, by whom, and in whose intention they were brought. Remember those who bring tithes and offerings and do good works in Your holy churches and those who remember the poor; grant them in exchange Your heavenly riches and gifts: give them heavenly things in return for earthly things, incorruptible things for corruptible things. Remember, O Lord, those who are in the deserts, mountains, caves and pits of the earth. Remember, O Lord, those who live in virginity, godliness, asceticism, and holiness of life. Remember, O Lord, this country and all those in civil authority: grant them a secure and lasting peace; speak good things to their hearts concerning Your Church and all Your people, so that in the serenity they will provide us, we may live a calm and peaceful life in all godliness and holiness. Remember, O Lord, every principality and authority, our brethren who serve in the government and the armed forces. Preserve the good in their goodness, and make the wicked good through Your goodness. Remember, O Lord, the people here present and those who are absent for an honorable reason. Have mercy on them and on us according to the multitude of Your mercy. Fill their houses with all good things; preserve their marriages in peace and harmony; bring up their children, guide their youth; strengthen their elderly; encourage the faint-hearted; reunite the separated; lead back the wayward and unite them to Your Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. Deliver those who are afflicted by unclean spirits; sail with those who are at sea; accompany those who travel by land or by air; defend the widows; protect the orphans; free the captives; heal the sick. Remember, O God, those who are under persecution, in courts, in mines, in exile, in harsh labor, and those in any kind of tribulation, need, or distress. Remember, O Lord our God, all those who have need of Your great compassion, those who love us, those who hate us, and those who have asked us in our unworthiness to pray for them. Be mindful of all Your people, O Lord our God, and pour out Your rich mercy upon all of them, granting them all the petitions which are for their salvation. And remember O God, all those whom we have not remembered through ignorance, forgetfulness, or the multitude of names, for You know the name and age of each, even from his mother’s womb. For You, O Lord, are the help of the helpless, the Savior of the afflicted, the haven of the voyager, the physician of the sick. Be all things to all men, for You know each one and his request, his household, and his need. Deliver this city, O Lord, and every city, land, town from famine, plague, earthquake, and shipwreck, flood, fire, sword, foreign invasion, and civil war. (aloud) Among the first, remember O Lord, Our Bishop (N.) and grant him to Your holy churches for many years in peace, safety, honor, health, and in rightly teaching the word of Your truth.

Commentary: When the deacon ceased to read the diptychs aloud, the commemoration of the chief bishop of the see evolved to fill the void.

Deacon: And remember also those men and women whom each of us has in mind.
People: And all Your people.
Celebrant (in a low voice): Remember, O Lord, every Orthodox bishop who rightly teaches the word of Your truth. Remember me also, O Lord, in my unworthiness, according to the multitude of Your mercies; forgive my every transgression, both voluntary and involuntary. Do not take away the grace of Your Holy Spirit from these gifts here presented on account of my sin. Remember, O Lord, the presbytery, the diaconate in Christ, and every order of the clergy. Let none of us who stand about Your holy altar be put to confusion. Visit us with Your goodness, O Lord; manifest Yourself to us in the richness of Your mercies. Grant us seasonable and healthful weather; send gentle showers upon the earth so that it may bear fruit. Bless the crown of the year with Your goodness. Cause schisms in the churches to cease. Put an end to the attacks of the unbelievers; quickly bring to an end the rise of heresy by the power of Your Holy Spirit. Receive us all into Your Kingdom, consecrating us as children of the light and children of the day. Grant us Your own peace and Your own love, O Lord our God, for You have given all things to us.(aloud) And grant that with one mouth and one heart we may glorify Your all-honorable and majestic Name, of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages.
Celebrant: And may the mercies of our Great God and Savior Jesus Christ be with you all.
People: And with your spirit.

The Litany Before the Lord’s Prayer

A deacon stands outside of the sanctuary to lead the people in the Litany Before the Lord’s Prayer.

Deacon: Calling to remembrance all the Saints, again and again in peace, let us pray to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: For the precious Gifts that have been offered and sanctified, let us pray to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: That our God, who loves mankind, receiving them upon his holy, heavenly, and ideal Altar for an odor of spiritual fragrance, will send down upon us in return his divine grace and the gift of the Holy Spirit, let us pray to the Lord.
Deacon: For our deliverance from all affliction, anger, danger, and need, let us pray to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: Help us, save us, have mercy on us and keep us, O God, by Your grace.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: That this whole day may be perfect, holy, peaceful, and sinless, let us ask of the Lord.
People: Grant this, O Lord.
Deacon: For an angel of peace, a faithful guide and guardian of our souls and bodies, let us ask of the Lord.

Commentary: The mention of the angels during this litany is yet another indication of the belief that the clergy and faithful joined in the worship of heaven during the Liturgy.

People: Grant this, O Lord.
Deacon: For pardon and remission of our sins and transgressions, let us ask of the Lord.
People: Grant this, O Lord.
Deacon: For all that is good and profitable for our souls and for peace in the world, let us ask of the Lord.
People: Grant this, O Lord.
Deacon: That we may spend the remainder of our life in peace and repentance, let us ask of the Lord.
People: Grant this, O Lord.
Deacon: For a Christian end to our life, painless, blameless, and peaceful, and for a good defense before the dread judgment seat of Christ, let us ask of the Lord.
People: Grant this, O Lord.
Deacon: Asking for the unity of the Faith and the communion of the Holy Spirit, let us commend ourselves and each other and all our life unto Christ our God.
People: To you, O Lord.
Celebrant: And make us worthy, O Lord, that with boldness and without condemnation, we may dare to call upon You, the heavenly God as Father and say:
People: Our Father, who art in heaven, hallowed be Thy Name. Thy Kingdom come, Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread, and forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive those who trespass against us; and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.
Celebrant: For Thine is the Kingdom and the power and the glory of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages.
People: Amen.

The Prayer at the Bowing of the Head
Celebrant: Peace be to all.
People: And to your spirit.
Deacon: Let us bow our heads to the Lord.
People: To You, O Lord.
Celebrant (in a low voice): O Master, Lord, the Father of compassion and God of every consolation: Bless, sanctify, guard, strengthen, and defend those who have bowed their heads to You. Withdraw them from every evil deed; apply them to every good work; and graciously grant that without condemnation, they may partake of these, Your most pure and life-creating Mysteries, for the remission of their sins, and unto the communion of the Holy Spirit. (aloud) Through the grace and compassion and love for mankind of Your Only-begotten Son, with Whom You are blessed, together with Your all-holy, good, and life-giving Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages.
People: Amen

The Elevation

Commentary: Sometime after the fifth century the celebrant began to elevate the consecrated bread. Originally a call to the faithful to prepare for communion, the elevation became a symbol of the lifting up of Christ’s body on the cross. The celebrant then broke the bread to prepare it for distribution during Holy Communion. A part of the Eucharist from the very beginning, this too took on a symbolic meaning as an image of the sacrifice of Christ on the cross.

Text:

Celebrant (in a low voice): Hear us, O Lord Jesus Christ our God, from Your holy dwelling place and from the glorious throne of Your Kingdom, and come to sanctify us, You Who sit on high with the Father and are here invisibly present with us. And make us worthy by Your mighty hand to be given Your most pure Body and precious Blood and through us to all Your people.
Deacon: Let us attend!
Celebrant: The holy Gifts for holy people!
People: One is holy. One is holy. One is the Lord Jesus Christ. To the glory of God the Father. Amen.
Celebrant (in a low voice): For the fullness of the Holy Spirit.

The celebrant then pours warm water, the zeon, into the Chalice.

Commentary: The origin of the warm water, or zeon is unknown. Some believe that it began in Cappadocia to keep the wine from freezing. Others argue that it stems from the Aphthartodocetae, an extreme form of Monophysitism, that taught that the blood and water that flowed from the side of Christ was warm because the body of Christ remained incorrupt even in death. In any case, it was an established custom by the middle of the sixth century, when the Armenian Catholicos Moses II stated that he would not drink warm wine in Constantinople.

The Communion
Celebrant: O God, save Your people and bless Your inheritance.
People: Amen. Let our mouths be filled with your praise, O Lord, that we may sing of your glory: for you have permitted us to partake of your holy, divine, immortal, and life-giving Mysteries. Establish us in your Sanctification, that all the day long we may meditate upon your righteousness. Alleluia, alleluia, alleluia.

Commentary: The faithful of ancient Constantinople took Holy Communion very seriously. They believed that they received the actual body and blood of the risen Christ. Therefore they prepared themselves by strict fasting and through special prayers. In time they would consider the sacrament so sacred that they began to receive Holy Communion only a few times a year. Originally the clergy placed the consecrated bread in the crossed hands of the faithful and then gave them the chalice. By the ninth century, the clergy placed the consecrated bread in the chalice and administered Communion to the laity with a spoon.

The Ektenia of Thanksgiving
A deacon stands outside of the sanctuary to lead the people in The Ektenia of Thanksgiving.
Deacon: Let us attend! Having received the holy, most pure, immortal, heavenly, life-giving, and awesome Mysteries of Christ, let us worthily give thanks to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: Help us, save us; have mercy on us; and keep us, O God, by Your grace.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Deacon: Asking that the whole day may be perfect, holy, peaceful, and sinless, let us commend ourselves and each other and all our life unto Christ our God.
Celebrant (in a low voice): We thank You, O Lord our God, for the participation in Your holy, pure, immortal, and heavenly Mysteries, which You have given us for the welfare and sanctification and healing of our souls and bodies. O Master of all, grant that the communion of the Holy Body and Blood of Your Christ may be for us unto a faith which cannot be put to confusion, a love unfeigned, an increase of wisdom, the healing of soul and body, the repelling of every adversary, the fulfillment of Your commandments, and an acceptable defense at the awesome judgment seat of Your Christ. For You are our sanctification, and we give glory to You, to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages.
People: Amen.
Celebrant: Let us go forth in peace.
People: In the Name of the Lord.
The clergy then process out of the Church. When they reach the ambon, the celebrant pauses for the Prayer Behind the Ambon.
Deacon: Let us pray to the Lord.
People: Lord, have mercy.
Celebrant: O Lord, Who blesses those Who bless You, and sanctify those who put their trust in You: save Your people and bless Your inheritance. Protect the whole body of Your Church, and sanctify those who love the beauty of Your house. Glorify them by Your divine power and do not forsake us who hope in You. Give peace to Your world, to Your churches, to the priests, to our civil authorities, and to all Your people. For every good gift and every perfect gift is from above, coming down from You, the Father of Lights; and to You, we send up glory, thanksgiving, and worship, to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages.
People: Amen.

(Adapted from the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America, Service Book of the Holy Eastern Orthodox Catholic Church and Apostolic Church [New York, 1975].)

Conclusion

Although it had reached most of its present form by the ninth century, the development of the text of Byzantine Liturgy continued through the Middle Ages. The preparation of the bread and wine was expanded and proceeded by the Kairon, or prayers of the clergy, before entering the sanctuary and a set of vesting prayers. The Great Litany moved to the beginning of the service and disappeared from the Prayers of the Faithful. Little Litanies introduced the second and third prayers of the antiphons. The Litany before the Lord’s Prayer was duplicated following the Great Entrance. The text of the Liturgy reached its contemporary form by the publication of the Diataxis by Patriarch Philotheus of Constantinople (1354–1376). Changes in architecture also influenced the development of the Byzantine Liturgy. In smaller churches, the sacristy moved from outside the building to an area in the sanctuary to the left of the Holy Table. Thus the Entrances became processions from inside the sanctuary through the nave and back to the sanctuary. The barrier between the nave and the sanctuary became the iconostasis as icons were placed on the barrier, reaching its final form in Novgorod in the fourteenth century. The symbolic interpretation of the Liturgy also developed further, especially through the commentary of St. Nicholas Cabasilas, also in the fourteenth century.

The Influence of the Synagogue on Early Christian Worship

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The New Testament records that Jesus and his disciples, as well as early Christian preachers such as Paul and Barnabas, attended the synagogue assemblies. The true influence of the synagogue on early Christian worship, however, is difficult to assess. Contacts between Christians and Jews continued up to the fourth century; thus, in the post–New Testament period Jewish influence can be seen in the development of Christian prayer and the Christian calendar.

That Jewish worship influenced ancient Christian liturgy is widely assumed in contemporary liturgical studies. However, the scholarly landscape has shifted enormously in the years since the publication of W. O. E. Oesterley’s The Jewish Background of the Christian Liturgy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925) and C. W. Dugmore’s The Influence of the Synagogue Upon the Divine Office (London: Humphrey Milford, 1944). Biblical and historical studies since the Second World War have demonstrated the diversity and complexity of first-century Judaism. Therefore, contemporary scholars are hesitant to speak with Dugmore and Oesterley’s certainty about the structure and content of Jewish worship in the first century, when the Jewish influence upon the liturgical life of the nascent Christian movement would have been most direct. We can no longer say that there was in first-century Judaism a standard synagogue that influenced Christian worship; rather, Christian worship emerged within the context of a variety of Judaisms, each with its own developing liturgical traditions.

Even after the separation of the Christian movement from Judaism, the relationship between Christian communities and their Jewish neighbors was complex and varied greatly according to geographical locale. Some fourth-century Christians borrowed prayers that appear to be Jewish in origin, perhaps as a result of the ongoing contact between Christians and Jews in some areas.

First Century Synagogue Influence

The New Testament Period. The New Testament records the traditions of Jesus’ attendance at synagogue services, and the disciples’ frequenting the temple after the Resurrection (cf. Mark 1:21, 6:2, and parallels; Matt. 4:23 and parallels; Matt. 9:35; Luke 4:15–16; 6:6, and parallels; Luke 13:10–27; John 6:59; 18:20; Acts 2:42, 46–47). We know little, however, about the content of these liturgical services in which Jesus and his disciples participated, because the evidence for the content of Jewish worship before 70 c.e. is scant. The most that we can say is that synagogue worship in the first century contained readings from the Torah and prophets, the Shēma‘; and a form (varying from synagogue to synagogue) of the Tƒfillah, or “prayer,” containing a variable number of sections. It is difficult, therefore, to determine the extent to which Jewish liturgical traditions influenced the development of Christian worship. How the liturgical practices of the earliest Jewish disciples carried over into the liturgical life of the earliest Christian communities is largely unknown.

The Eucharist and Its Roots in Jewish Prayer. The primitive Christian Eucharist provides a good example of the ambiguity involved in determining the Jewish roots of Christian worship. While the Gospels and Paul clearly place the Last Supper in the context of the Passover (whether or not the Last Supper actually was the Passover meal), it is impossible to know the extent to which first-century Jewish Passover rituals contributed to the structure of the first-century Eucharist. The prayers of Didachē 9 and 10 (see below) resemble most closely Jewish table prayers (which were also used at the Passover meal). In the next glimpse we get of Christian weekly worship (in the First Apology of Justin Martyr, mid-second century), the Eucharist had acquired a “shape” that was to become standard: a service of readings, preaching, and prayer followed by a ritual meal (Justin, Apology I 67). While most scholars today recognize the Jewish roots of these two parts of the Sunday service, no evidence exists that links the readings and meal of the Eucharist to specific Jewish liturgical texts. The most that we can say is that both Jews and Christians read Scripture at their services and that both Jews and Christians had traditions of prayer at their sacred meals.

The Didachē. The Didachē, or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, reached its final form by the end of the first century, although portions of this church order may be as old as the 50s or 60s of the first-century c.e. Of all first-century sources, the Didachē contains the clearest example of some early Christian liturgical practice related to Jewish worship. Chapters 9 and 10 describe a ritual meal that consists of (a) a prayer over the cup and bread (chapter 9); (b) a meal; and (c) a thanksgiving after the meal (chapter 10). The thanksgiving after the meal of Didachē 10 is very similar in content and structure to the Jewish blessing after the meal, or Birkat hammazon, and appears to be a Christian version of that prayer, a form of which appears as early as Jubilees 22 (second century b.c.e.).

Thanksgiving or Blessing? Didachē 10 points to the predilection of Christian prayer for thanksgiving (todah) rather than blessing (bērakah), which by the second century became the usual form of Jewish prayer. The extent to which the Christian thanksgiving form of prayer is rooted in other first-century Jewish forms of prayer (such as those attested at Qumran) continues to be debated. However, it would be wrong to press too far this distinction between the Christian “thanksgiving” and the Jewish “blessing”: prayers found in the second and third century apocryphal “acts” (i.e., the Acts of John, Acts of Paul, Acts of Peter, and Acts of Thomas) are often couched in both terms.

Reproduced below are two “trajectories” of the Jewish blessing after meals: a Christian text (Didachē 10) dating anywhere from 50 to 100 c.e.; and a version of the prayer from a very early Jewish prayer book, the tenth-century Siddur Rav Saadya. Although these two texts are separated by nine centuries, they show a striking similarity in themes. Note that the prayer for Jerusalem in Rav Saadya dates from after 70 c.e.

The New Testament records that Jesus said a blessing before he miraculously fed multitudes of people (Mark 6:41; Matt. 14:18; Luke 9:16; Mark 8:6–7; Matt. 15:36; John 6:11). The narratives of the Last Supper (Mark 14:22–25; Matt. 26:26–29; Luke 22:15–20; 1 Cor. 11:23–26) also record that Jesus said a blessing at the breaking of bread, and the story of the post-resurrection appearance to the disciples at Emmaus mentions Jesus’ saying the blessing at the beginning of the meal (Luke 24:30, 35). Given this wide attestation in the tradition to Jesus’ use of the Jewish liturgical practice of blessing God at meals, it is not unlikely that the great prayer of thanksgiving at the Eucharist derives to some extent from forms of the Jewish blessing before and after meals familiar to Jesus and his disciples.

Didachē 10. And after you have had your fill, give thanks thus:
We give thanks to you, holy Father, for your holy name which you have enshrined in our hearts, and for the knowledge and faith and immortality which you made known to us through your child Jesus; glory to you forevermore.

You, Lord Almighty, created all things for the sake of your name and gave food and drink to men for their enjoyment, that they might give you thanks; but to us, you have granted spiritual food and drink for eternal life through your child Jesus.

Above all we give you thanks because you are mighty; glory to you for evermore. Amen.

Remember, Lord, your church, to deliver it from all evil and to perfect it in your love, and bring it together from the four winds, now sanctified, into your kingdom which you have prepared for it; for yours are the power and the glory forevermore. Amen.

Rav Saadya. Blessing of him who nourishes
Blessed are you, Lord our God, King of the universe, for you nourish us and the whole world with goodness, grace, kindness, and mercy. Blessed are you, Lord, for you nourish the universe.

Blessing for the earth
Blessed are you, Lord our God, King of the universe, for you nourish us and the whole world with goodness, grace, kindness and mercy. Blessed are you, Lord, for you nourish the universe.

Blessing for the earth
We will give thanks to you, Lord our God, because you have given us for your inheritance a desirable land, good and wide, the covenant and law, life and food. And for all these things we give you thanks and bless your name forever and beyond. Blessed are you, Lord our God, for the earth and for food.

Blessing for Jerusalem
Have mercy, Lord our God, on us your people Israel, and your city Jerusalem, on your sanctuary and your dwelling-place, on Zion, the habitation of your glory, and the great and holy house over which your name is invoked. Restore the kingdom of the house of David to its place in our days, and speedily build Jerusalem.

On the feast of Passover, this embolism follows in the Jewish prayers:

Our God and God of our fathers, may three arise in your sight, and come, and be present, and be regarded, and be pleasing, and be heard, and be visited, and be remembered our remembrance and our visitation, and the remembrance of our fathers, and the remembrance of the Messiah, the son of your servant David, and the remembrance of Jerusalem, the city of your holiness, and the remembrance of all your people, the house of Israel; for escape, for prosperity, for grace, and for loving-kindness and mercy, for life and for peace, on this day of the Feast of Unleavened Bread. Remember us on this day, Lord our God, for prosperity, and visit us on it for blessing, and save us on it for life. And by the word of salvation and mercy spare us, and grant us grace, and have mercy on us, and save us: for our eyes look to you, for you, O God, are a gracious and merciful king.

Blessed are you, Lord, for you build Jerusalem. Amen.

Blessed are you, Lord our God, King of the universe, God, our father, our king, our creator, our redeemer, good and beneficent king, who day by day is concerned to benefit us in many ways, and himself will increase for us for ever in grace and kindness and spirit and mercy and every good thing.

Continuing Influence of the Synagogue on Christian Worship

After the first century, Christian liturgy continued to develop in a variety of trajectories largely independent of those followed by post–first-century Jewish worship. With the destruction of the Jerusalem temple in 70 c.e. and the formal separation, toward the end of the first century, of the Christian movement from Judaism, the links between the two were never again as close as they were formerly. Yet contact between Christians and Jews continued, as evidenced by the fourth-century church councils that legislated against Christian attendance at Jewish worship (cf. Council of Laodicea, canons 29, 37, 38; Apostolic Canons 70–71: see Apostolic Constitutions VIII.47.7–71). In addition, the eight homilies against the Jews preached by John Chrysostom in Antioch in 386 and 387 also suggest that Christians and Jews were worshiping together in that city.

The Christian Calendar. The Quartodeciman controversy of the second century, so-called for the observance of Passover on the Jewish date 14 Nisan (described by Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History V. 23–24), indirectly attests to the Jewish influence upon the Christian calendar. The issue at stake in Quartodeciman practice (reflected, for example, in the second-century Epistula Apostolorum) was whether or not Easter should be celebrated at the same time as the Jewish Passover (which may very well have been the more ancient practice). Some have also suggested that the Christian appropriation of Wednesday and Friday as special liturgical days (cf. Didachē 8) may be related to an Essene solar calendar that highlighted those particular days of the week.

Christian Borrowing of Jewish Prayers. The Apostolic Constitutions, a church order compiled in the environs of Antioch around the year 380, contains a collection of prayers of Hellenistic Jewish origin on a variety of topics (VII, 33–38). The existence of these prayers in the Apostolic Constitutions points to the ongoing appropriation of Jewish liturgical forms by at least one Christian community after the first century.

Conclusions

The decades before the fall of Jerusalem in 70 c.e. saw the greatest influence of Jewish worship upon Christian liturgy. After the destruction of the temple and the emergence of rabbinic Judaism at the end of the first century, Christian and Jewish worship continued to develop independently. Contact between Christians and Jews continued in subsequent centuries, but there is little evidence for any ongoing Jewish influences upon Christian worship after the formative period of the first century.

We should not expect direct verbal or structural parallels between first-century Jewish and Christian worship. In the first century, both liturgical traditions were diverse, not yet committed to writing, and in flux. To be sure, first-century Christians and Jews drew from a fund of liturgical structures, terminology, and imagery that each group used in increasingly divergent ways in subsequent centuries. Therefore, the Christian and Jewish liturgical traditions that emerged after the first century were more nearly cousins than siblings, descendants of liturgical ancestors that in the first century may have been closer relatives.

Acts of Receiving in the Lord’s Supper

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Several traditional acts of worship accompany the receiving of the Lord’s Supper. Some form of “fraction,” or breaking of the bread, is found in most observances of the rite. In addition, the distribution of the Eucharist may incorporate the Agnus Dei (“Lamb of God”), the acclamation “Christ Our Passover,” and a concluding prayer of thanksgiving.

Fraction

Fraction is the liturgical term for the breaking of the bread by the officiant during the celebration of the Eucharist. The fraction may occur during the singing of the Agnus Dei or other hymn; in many churches, however, especially Protestant communities, the fraction occurs during the words of institution, at that point where the text mentions Jesus’ breaking of the bread (Matt. 26:26; 1 Cor. 11:24).

The Lord’s Supper is a dramatic re-presentation of Jesus’ last meal with his disciples. The fraction is perhaps the most vivid and original action in this reenactment; it gives visible—and even auditory, if a wafer or crispbread is used—expression to the remembrance of the broken body of the Lord. The visual impact of the fraction is greatest when the congregation is served from a single loaf, broken apart for distribution; such a practice preserves the symbolism of the unity of the church, as articulated by Paul: “Because there is one loaf, we, who are many, are one body, for we all partake of the one loaf” (1 Cor. 10:17).

“Lamb of God” (Agnus Dei)

In historic Christian liturgies, the hymn or prayer, known as the “Lamb of God” or Agnus Dei, is sung during the breaking of the bread and the final preparation of the elements for distribution to the people. The text of this hymn, as it occurs in contemporary liturgies, is the following:

Lamb of God, you take away the sins of the world:
Have mercy on us.
Lamb of God, you take away the sins of the world:
Have mercy on us.
Lamb of God, you take away the sins of the world:
Grant us peace. Amen.

The New Testament symbolism of the lamb, as applied to Jesus Christ, is based on the sacrificial rites of Israelite worship, in which unblemished animals were offered in atonement for sin to maintain the covenant and restore communion between the Lord and his worshipers (Lev. 1–6). In addition, a lamb was eaten in the Passover meal, which celebrated the events of Israel’s deliverance from Egypt; the blood of a lamb, applied to the doors of their homes, protected the Israelites from the wrath of the Lord visited upon their enemies (Exod. 12).

The writings of the apostle John especially refer to Jesus as the Lamb. The Agnus Dei is a quotation from the words of John the Baptist, as recorded in the fourth Gospel (John 1:29, 36); in the Revelation to John, the victorious Christ is often simply called “the Lamb” in both the dramatic narrative and its accompanying hymnody (Rev. 5:12; 7:9–10; 12:11; 13:8; 17:14; 21:22–23; 22:1–3). Peter also compares Christ to the sacrificial lamb: “For you know that it was not with perishable things such as silver or gold that you were redeemed from the empty way of life handed down to you from your forefathers, but with the precious blood of Christ, a lamb without blemish or defect” (1 Pet. 1:18–19). Paul alludes to the lamb of Passover in declaring, “For Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed. Therefore let us keep the Festival” (1 Cor 5:7–8).

The title “Lamb of God” recognizes the centrality of Jesus’ sacrificial death in bringing about the reconciliation of God and his people, the restoration of the relationship violated by sin. Thus the Agnus Dei, or “Lamb of God,” appropriately accompanies the distribution of the Lord’s Supper in traditional worship. The Supper is a memorial of the death of Christ, through which God’s forgiveness has been made available to repentant humanity and continues to be applied to the faithful who confess their sins (James 5:15; 1 John 1:9); the hymn, therefore, petitions the Lamb, “Have mercy on us.” The Lord’s Supper is also the Christian Passover, the covenant meal; since “peace,” or wholeness of life, is the content of the covenant, in this hymn the worshipers petition the Lamb of God, “Grant us peace.”

Christ Our Passover

In some liturgical traditions the words of Paul in 1 Corinthians 5:7–8 may be spoken or sung responsively at the distribution of the Eucharist:

Alleluia, Christ our Passover is sacrificed for us;
Therefore let us keep the feast. Alleluia.

This acclamation is not part of any specific teaching about the Lord’s Supper but is found in the context of Paul’s admonition to the Corinthian church to purify itself of immorality. In the New Testament, leaven, or yeast, is a symbol of false teaching and corruption (Matt. 16:6; Mark 8:15; Luke 13:21; Gal. 5:7–9). Just as the Passover bread must be free from any contamination of leaven, so the body of Christ must be free from moral permissiveness and the teaching that encourages it: “Therefore let us keep the Festival, not with the old yeast, the yeast of malice and wickedness, but with bread without yeast, the bread of sincerity and truth” (1 Cor. 5:8). In Paul’s exhortation, the common life of the Christian community is analogous to the keeping of the feasts prescribed in the Mosaic Law, in particular the Feast of Passover. It is this analogy to the theme of festival, rather than the note of purification, that forges the link between Paul’s words and the observance of the Lord’s Supper. The church’s life together, including its worship centering in the Lord’s Table, is a feast to be celebrated with great joy.

Prayer of Thanksgiving

In the early church, the congregation was dismissed by a deacon immediately following the distribution of the Lord’s Supper. By the fifth century, however, an additional prayer of thanksgiving had been added before the dismissal, a practice retained in many liturgies today. The prayer of thanksgiving returns to, and sums up, the eucharistic motif with which the great thanksgiving begins, as the congregation reflects on the benefits mediated through participation in the Lord’s Supper. This example is from a Lutheran service:

We give you thanks, almighty God, that you have refreshed us through the healing power of this gift of life; and we pray that in your mercy you would strengthen us through this gift, in faith toward you and in fervent love toward one another; for the sake of Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.

271     w     Benediction (Blessing)

As traditional Christian worship begins with acts of entrance, it also closes with acts of dismissal, chiefly a benediction. The benediction invokes the blessing of the Lord upon the congregation and sends the worshipers forth in the strength of God.

Historic worship typically concludes with a blessing or benediction (from a Latin term meaning “pronouncement of good”), spoken over the assembly by one of the officiants in the liturgy. In the church of the early centuries, the benediction was spoken by the bishop just before the Eucharist, but by the second millennium, it had become common for priests to say it at the conclusion of the service.

In Scripture, a blessing (bƒrakhah) is more than the mere recitation of a formula. Words, in biblical psychology, convey the “soul,” or life force, of their speaker; a powerful person utters powerful words, with a telling impact on those to whom they are directed. As the Almighty, God speaks the most powerful Word of all, through which all things have come into being and are sustained (Pss. 33:6; 107:20; John 1:3; Heb. 1:3). The word of a king (Prov. 8:4), a family patriarch (Gen. 27:34–35), a priest (Num. 6:22–27), or a prophet of the Lord (1 Sam. 3:19) is more effective, both for blessing and for curse, than the word of a person of lesser station or presence. Certain people, such as Balaam, son of Beor, were known to be especially effective in such utterances (Num. 22:6).

The blessing, or pronouncement of favor and peace, by a community leader is part of the process by which the welfare of the community is furthered and sustained. Thus Jacob blessed his sons before his death (Gen. 49:28), and Moses blessed the tribes of Israel before their entrance into Canaan (Deut. 33). Paul sometimes included benedictions in the conclusion of his epistles (Rom. 15:13; 2 Cor. 13:14; Eph. 6:23–24). The blessing of the congregation by their spiritual leader is frequently recorded in accounts of biblical worship. Aaron and Moses blessed the people as they presented their offerings in the wilderness (Lev. 9:22–23); David “blessed the people in the name of the Lord Almighty” when the ark of the covenant was brought up to Zion (2 Sam. 6:18); Solomon blessed the people during the dedication of the house of the Lord (1 Kings 8:14) and at the conclusion of the ceremony (1 Kings 8:55); the Levitical priests blessed the assembly following the renewal of the Passover observance under Hezekiah (2 Chron. 30:27). The customary posture of blessing is the lifting of the hands (Lev. 9:22); in departing from his disciples, the risen Christ lifted up his hands and blessed them (Luke 24:50).

The blessing of the worshiping congregation is the pronouncement of the Lord’s blessing, the invocation of his name upon the people. This is exemplified in the best-known of the biblical benedictions, widely used today in Christian worship, the priestly blessing with which Moses directed Aaron and his sons to bless the people:

The Lord bless you, and keep you;
The Lord make his face shine on you,
And be gracious to you;
The Lord lift up his countenance on you,
And give you peace. (Num. 6:24–26 NASB)

Another traditional Christian benediction, invoking the Trinity, is based in part on Paul’s words in Philippians 4:7; it is cited here from a 1932 Methodist hymnal:

May the peace of God, which passeth all understanding, keep your hearts and minds in the knowledge and love of God, and of his Son Jesus Christ our Lord; and the blessing of God Almighty, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, be among you and remain with you always. Amen.

Several biblical passages often pronounced at the conclusion of traditional Protestant worship, such as Hebrews 13:20–21 or Jude 24–25, are not properly benedictions but doxologies, expressions of praise and glory to the Lord. Nevertheless, a blessing in Scripture is a reciprocal act; while the Lord, through his spokespersons, may bless his people, the worshipers may also bless the Lord and give him glory (1Chron. 29:20; Neh. 9:5; Pss. 34:1; 103:1; 134:2; 135:19–20; James 3:9).

Terms Referring to the Practice of Christian Worship in the New Testament

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The New Testament also contains a vocabulary of terms that reflect the worship of the new covenant community, a worship that was anticipated before the formation of the Christian church by the awed and worshipful response of many to the person of Jesus himself and by Jesus’ own worship of the Father.

General Terms for Worship

There is no New Testament term that exactly corresponds to our English word worship. The biblical expressions are concrete, whereas the word worship, etymologically, conveys the more abstract idea of “ascribing worth.” A common term in the New Testament (though seldom found in the Epistles) is the verb proskuneō, which means literally to “fall to the knee before,” to bow down or prostrate oneself; the Septuagint uses this term often as a translation of the equivalent Hebrew term hishtaḥ‡vah. The term latreuō, “serve,” is employed in the Greek Old Testament to translate the Hebrew ‘avad, as applied to the cultic service of priests. In the New Testament, this word sometimes refers to serving the Lord through the devout and upright life (Rom. 1:9; 2 Tim. 1:3; noun latreia, Rom. 12:1), but can also refer, more specifically, to worshiping. Paul declares that the church is the true circumcision, the faithful covenant people, “who worship [latreuō] by the Spirit of God, who glory [kauchaomai, ‘boast’] in Christ Jesus” (Phil. 3:3). The author of Hebrews also places the term in a context of worship when he urges his readers to exhibit thanksgiving (charis) “and so worship [latreuō] God acceptably with reverence and awe” (Heb. 12:28). In the New Testament, the word leitourgia (verb leitourgeō), the root of the English word liturgy, refers to the service or ministry of priests (Luke 1:23; Heb. 8:6; 9:21) and to the church’s corporate ministry to the Lord (Acts 13:2), but also to Christian service in general (Rom. 15:27; 2 Cor. 9:12; Phil. 2:7), as an act of sacrificial devotion both to God and to fellow believers.

Worship at the Birth of Christ

Acts of worship accompanied the incarnation of the Son of God, as the gospel accounts of the birth of Christ in both Matthew and Luke demonstrate. Luke’s narrative is especially rich in worship materials; he incorporates several early Christian hymns, which later came to be known by their opening words in Latin: the Magnificat of Mary (Luke 1:46–55), the Benedictus of Zacharias (Luke 1:68–79), the Gloria in Excelsis of the heavenly host (Luke 2:14), and the Nunc Dimittis of Simeon (Luke 2:29–32). Without denying that these hymnic utterances could have come forth from those to whom Luke’s account originally ascribes them, one cannot help but observe that his gospel narrative has much the character of a modern nativity pageant with traditional Christmas carols interspersed at appropriate points. These hymns owe much to their Old Testament antecedents in the Psalms, and in the case of Mary’s hymn, to the song of thanksgiving uttered by Hannah at the birth of Samuel (1 Sam. 2:1–10). All these hymns have a common theme: the ascription of glory (doxa) to God for his new and gracious act in the deliverance of his people, an act that not only fulfills the promise made to the patriarchs and prophets of Israel, but also extends the covenant blessing of peace and salvation to the Gentiles and to all “on whom his favor rests” (anthrōpois eudokias, Luke 2:14). (The hymn of the heavenly host finds an echo later in the third gospel, in the acclamation of the disciples at Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem, “Peace in heaven and glory in the highest!” [Luke 19:38].) Other acts of praise in the Lucan infancy narrative include the rejoicing of the shepherds, who returned from Bethlehem “glorifying and praising God” (doxazontes kai ainountes ton theon, Luke 2:20) and of the prophetess Anna, who on seeing the infant Jesus, “gave thanks to God” (anthomologeito tō theō, Luke 2:38 rsv).

As for Matthew’s account of the Nativity (Matt. 2:1–12), his narrative stresses the homage paid to the child Jesus by the Magi, who “bowed down and worshiped him” (Matt. 2:11) as they offered their gifts. This passage uses the term worship (proskuneō) three times (Matt. 2:2, 8, 11). As with Luke, who stressed the salvation to come to the Gentiles through the appearance of the Christ, so with Matthew the worshipful Magi are not Jews but Gentiles, in fact Persian astrologers.

Homage to Christ During His Ministry

During the years of his earthly ministry, Jesus Christ frequently received the worship of those whose lives he touched. In some instances, people bowed down to him as a gesture of entreaty, asking to be cleansed from leprosy (Matt. 8:2) or for the healing of a family member (Matt. 9:18; 15:25). At other times, people worshiped Jesus because they recognized in him the presence of God. Those in the boat acclaimed him as the Son of God when he came to them upon the water (Matt. 14:33); even the demons in the man from the Gerasene tombs were constrained to worship Jesus as “Son of the Most High God” (Mark 5:7). (In all these instances the verb is proskuneō.) At his entry into Jerusalem, Jesus received the praise of those going in procession with him, who were acclaiming him as Son of David with shouts of “Hosanna!” (hōsanna, from a Hebrew phrase meaning “Save, Lord!”) and “Blessed [eulogēmenos] is he who comes in the name of the Lord!” (Matt. 21:9), a quotation from Psalm 118:26. But the disciples’ worship of Jesus reached a climax of awestruck amazement at his resurrection, as they fell to their knees before him (Matt. 28:9, 17), rejoiced (chairō) to behold him (John 20:20), or like Thomas, exclaimed, “My Lord and my God!” (John 20:28).

Jesus’ Worship of the Father

Jesus set the example for his disciples as a worshiper of the Father. He instructed them to approach the Lord of the covenant with praise and adoration:

Hallowed be your name,
Your kingdom come,
Your will be done
On earth as it is in heaven. (Matt. 6:9–10)

Yet Jesus’ worship was not a dignified formality but a joyous abandon before his Father (Luke 10:21). Upon the return of the seventy from their mission of proclaiming the kingdom of God, Jesus danced in the Holy Spirit (the basic meaning of the verb agalliaō, often translated “exult, greatly rejoice”) and praised the Lord of heaven and earth (exōmologeō, to praise in the sense of acknowledging the mighty deeds of God).

In praying to the Father, Jesus frequently gave thanks (eucharisteō), as in distributing the loaves and fish (John 6:11, 23) or in preparing to raise Lazarus (John 11:41), but most memorably at the Last Supper with his disciples when he blessed (eulogeō) the bread and gave thanks (eucharisteō) over the cup, the meal solemnizing the new covenant of the kingdom of God (Mark 14:22–25; 1 Cor. 11:23–25). In the church’s later celebration of the Lord’s Supper, this act of thanksgiving was of such importance that it supplied one of the terms, Eucharist, traditionally designating this basic act of Christian worship.

Thanksgiving and Rejoicing

Moreover, the attitude of constant thanksgiving became the hallmark of the life of the worshiping Christian. In Paul’s view, to fail to give thanks is to refuse to acknowledge God (Rom. 1:21). Expressions of gratitude abound in his epistles, whether giving thanks for the faithful church (Eph. 1:16) or uttering thanks (charis) to God for the victory of the Resurrection (1 Cor. 15:57); repeatedly he commends thanksgiving (verb eucharisteō, noun eucharistia) to his readers: “Give thanks in all circumstances” (1 Thess. 5:18); be filled with the Spirit, continuously giving thanks (Eph. 5:18, 20); walk in Christ, overflowing with thanksgiving (Col. 2:7); include thanksgiving in making your requests to God (Phil. 4:6). For Paul, the primary purpose of the use of tongues in worship is for thanksgiving, hence his directive in 1 Corinthians 14:13–17 to the effect that utterances in a tongue need to be interpreted for the “ungifted” so that they may “say ‘Amen’ to your thanksgiving [eucharistia].” The author of Hebrews likewise commends thanksgiving (charis) for the eternal kingdom as the reverential service of God (Heb. 12:28). He urges the church to offer up a continual “sacrifice of praise” (thusian aineseōs), confessing (hōmologeō) the name of God (Heb. 13:15); that he has thanksgiving primarily in mind is evident from the fact that his words echo those of Psalm 50, which invites the worshiper to “sacrifice thanksgiving” (zavaḥ todah) to the Lord (Ps. 50:14, 23 NASB).

Hand in hand with thanksgiving goes continual rejoicing; Paul’s oft-quoted dictum comes to mind: “Rejoice [chairō] in the Lord always. I will say it again: Rejoice!” (Phil. 4:4; cf. 1 Thess. 5:16). This rejoicing is a response to the new life of the kingdom of God, but also an anticipation of redemption to come despite adverse conditions in the present. As Paul said, “we rejoice [kauchaomai, literally ‘boast’] in the hope of the glory of God,” and even “rejoice in our sufferings” (Rom. 5:2–3), words reminiscent of those of Jesus to his disciples (Luke 6:22–23) when he commanded them to rejoice (chairō) in the day of persecution and “leap for joy” (skirtaō). “Do not rejoice [chairō] that the spirits submit to you,” he told them, “but rejoice that your names are written in heaven” (Luke 10:20).

Christian Worship As Corporate

But New Testament worship was not simply a matter of inward attitude or individual expression. It was a corporate experience of the gathered church celebrating its existence as a covenant people before the Lord, who had called it into being. Whereas in Israelite religion the priesthood was the special vocation of the few, the church collectively is “a royal priesthood [basileion hierateuma], a holy nation, a people belonging to God,” called forth to proclaim the excellencies of a redeeming God (1 Pet. 2:9). The church is created for worship, “being built into a spiritual house to be a holy priesthood, offering spiritual sacrifices [pneumatikas thusias] acceptable to God through Jesus Christ” (1 Pet. 2:5). The church is ekklēsia, a people “called out” from the unfaithful and from the world, set apart for the Lord as “the saints” or “holy ones” (hoi hagioi, never used in the New Testament to refer to an individual Christian but applied only to the church as a whole). To be a Christian is to be a part of the body of Christ (sōma christou, 1 Cor. 12:27; cf. Eph. 4:12), a favorite metaphor of the apostle Paul for the corporate gathering of the new covenant. Worship takes place in the assembling together (episunagōgē, Heb. 10:25) of the community of faith; describing the spontaneous worship of the Corinthian church, Paul indicates that it occurs when the people “come together” (sunerchomai, 1 Cor. 11:18; 14:23, 26).

Spiritual Gifts in Worship

In his directives to the Corinthians for the conduct of corporate worship (1 Cor. 12–14), Paul includes prophesying (noun prophēteia, 1 Cor. 12:10; verb prophēteuō, 1 Cor. 14:1, 39, and others), speaking with tongues (noun glōssai, 1 Cor. 12:10; verb lalein glōssais, 1 Cor. 14:39), interpretation of tongues (hermēneia, 1 Cor. 12:10; verb diermēneuō, 1 Cor. 14:27), as well as (1 Cor. 12:8) the “word of wisdom” (logos sophias) and the “word of knowledge” (logos gnōseōs). In the Bible, the prophet is the spokesman for the Lord, uttering the inspired word; Paul, however, specifically describes the function of the prophet in the assembly as speaking to men “for their strengthening, encouragement and comfort” (1 Cor. 14:3). The function of tongues appears to be addressing God to bless him and give thanks (1 Cor. 14:3, 16). Paul’s words in 1 Corinthians 14:18 should probably be translated, “I thank God, speaking in tongues, more than you all”; the usual translation ascribes to him a spiritual arrogance worthy of the Pharisee in the temple (Luke 18:11). Other worshipers may enter into this act of praise, adding their “Amen!” only if someone interprets the thanksgiving (1 Cor. 14:16). Understanding tongues as praise and thanksgiving is consistent with what is said about them in the account of the day of Pentecost, when visitors to Jerusalem from other parts of the ancient world understood the apostles to be “declaring the wonders of God” in their own languages (Acts 2:11). (The modern practice in some churches of following an utterance in tongues with an interpretation in the form of a message from the Lord is unknown in the New Testament.) These “vocal gifts” are enumerated among the pneumatika or “spiritual things,” such as gifts of healing or the effecting of miracles.

Music in Christian Worship

Music played an important role in early Christian worship. Paul lists “psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, singing and making melody with your heart to the Lord” as the outflow of the filling of the Holy Spirit and the word of God whereby believers express their thanksgiving to God (Eph. 5:18–20; Col. 3:16). “When you assemble,” he says, “each one has a psalm” (1 Cor. 14:26 NASB); even in prison in Philippi, Paul and Silas were “praying and singing hymns [humneō] to God” (Acts 16:25). By psalm (psalmos), we should probably understand the biblical Psalms as used in Israelite and Jewish worship. The meaning of hymn (humnos) is less certain, and might include not only the biblical Psalms but also other hymnic material, such as prophetic songs in the Scriptures, the Christian hymns of Luke 1–2 and the Revelation to John, and several other New Testament passages of a hymnlike character (John 1:1–18; Phil. 2:5–11; and the acclamation of 1 Tim. 3:16). No doubt there was much early Christian hymnody that has not been preserved. As to “spiritual songs” (ōdai pneumatikai), perhaps this term refers to spontaneous, free-flowing song, including singing in tongues.

Prayer and Instruction

The worship of the New Testament church also included times of prayer and instruction. Prayer, as an act of worship, was both personal and corporate. Encouraging the church in spiritual warfare, Paul admonishes the Ephesians, “Pray in the Spirit on all occasions with all kinds of prayers and requests” (proseuchēs kai deēsōs, Eph. 6:18). He urges the Thessalonians to “pray continually” (1 Thess. 5:17); he seems to have corporate prayer in mind, since he sets it within a context of rejoicing (1 Thess. 4:16) and thanksgiving (1 Thess. 5:18) and associates it with prophetic utterance (1 Thess. 5:20). Writing to Timothy, a pastoral leader, Paul urges the church to offer “requests, prayers, intercession and thanksgiving” (deēseis, proseuchas, enteuxeis, eucharistias) in behalf of all people (1 Tim. 2:1). The ministry of prayer was one function in which women could lead the assembly in worship; in his discussion of headship (1 Cor. 11:3–16) Paul assumes that a woman may pray or prophesy in the assembly, the only issue being whether her head should be covered, as a reflection of the headship of Christ.

Instruction also took place in the assembly. Acts 2:42 records that the early Christians of Jerusalem “devoted themselves to the apostles’ teaching [didachē],” and the Epistles, especially the Pastorals, contain abundant references to the need for accurate instruction in the church. Paul indicates that in the gathering of the church some came with “a word of instruction” (1 Cor. 14:26). The role of the pastor or “shepherd” (poimēn) was primarily that of teacher (didaskalos) of the assembly. Paul seems to equate the two offices in his list of the ministry gifts of the ascended Christ (Eph. 4:11) and indicates to Titus that the special task of the superintendent, or “overseer” (episkopos), is “to exhort in sound doctrine” (Titus 1:9).

The New Testament is not explicit about the order of service that combined prayer with instruction in the Scriptures (although some have found the suggestion of a sequence of events in 1 Cor. 14:26). It is widely held that early Christian worship was derived in part from the form of worship developing in the synagogue during the New Testament period, which combined prayers or blessings with the reading of the Scripture. But the biblical prayers of the Psalms and the various Old Testament accounts of the reading of the covenant laws supply the underlying scriptural model for this form of worship in both synagogue and church.

The Lord’s Supper

In any event, the most distinctive act of Christian worship in the New Testament church, as in the contemporary church, was the Lord’s Supper. The term Lord’s Supper, or perhaps more accurately, “imperial banquet” (kuriakon deipnon) occurs in Paul’s discussion of the ceremony in 1 Corinthians 11:20–34. In 1 Corinthians 10:16, he calls the cup “a participation [koinōnia] in the blood of Christ,” while the bread or loaf is called “a participation in the body of Christ.” This concept of koinōnia is difficult to translate; it embraces a deep and intense participation, sharing, fellowship, and mutual identification as one body in and with Christ (1 Cor. 10:17), and so underlies the theme of communion associated with this act of worship, although the modern term Holy Communion is not applied to it in the New Testament. Another New Testament expression that may refer to the Lord’s Supper is “the breaking of the bread” or loaf (klasis tou artou), especially since in Acts 2:42 it is associated with the koinōnia of the apostles as one of the distinctive features of the Jerusalem church in the days immediately after Pentecost. If John’s account of Jesus’ feeding of the multitude is understood as his method of interpreting the Lord’s Supper (since, when he comes to the account of the final meal with the disciples in Chapter 13, he omits the institution of the Lord’s Supper), then perhaps John 6:11 and 6:23 are a reference to the term Eucharist, or giving of thanks, as applied to this act.

During the New Testament period, the Lord’s Supper appears to have been not a liturgy in the modern sense, but an actual meal, or a portion of one, shared by members of the Christian community. As such, it was the covenant meal, the ceremonial enactment of the bond created between God and his new people through Jesus Christ, a parallel to the covenant meal shared by Moses and the elders of Israel as they ate and drank before the Lord on Mount Sinai (Exod. 24:11). In his institution of the ordinance, Jesus had given the loaf and the cup as the representations of his body and blood, declaring the cup to be “my blood of the covenant” (Matt. 26:28; Mark 14:24) or “the new covenant [hē kainē diathēkē] in my blood” (Luke 22:20). As the Passover, which Jesus and the disciples were observing, was a representation of Yahweh’s deliverance of Israel in the Exodus and his creation of a covenanted people, so the Lord’s Supper was also an anticipation of Jesus’ impending death on the cross, under the figure of his body broken and his blood poured out, and also of the victory of the enactment of the judgments and kingdom of God through his death and resurrection—events that were to bring into being the renewed people of the covenant. Thus, offering the cup to his disciples, Jesus told them he would “drink it anew with you in my Father’s kingdom” (Matt. 26:29), just as Paul later stated that in sharing the bread and the cup “you proclaim the Lord’s death until he comes” (1 Cor. 11:26). It seems clear that the “imperial banquet” was not the somber and introspective rite practiced in many churches of today, but a solemn yet festive and triumphant celebration.

Worship As Active and Visible

Although Jesus had spoken of genuine worship of the Father as worship “in spirit and truth” (en pneumati kai alētheia, John 4:23), this did not mean that Christian worship was so spiritual that it was invisible. The Lord’s Supper itself is an outward action—consuming a sacred meal—which conforms to an inward reality—the creation of the people of the new covenant. In other words, it has a “sacramental” character as a visible expression of the invisible. The great celebrations of Israelite worship, with their pilgrimages, public festivity, processions, dancing, shouting, and tumultuous praise, were not possible for the New Testament church, which had to maintain a low profile in a hostile environment. Nevertheless, within the assembly of believers, acts of worship were visible acts. The word translated “worship,” as noted above, means to kneel, bow, or prostrate oneself, and such actions must have accompanied the vocal expressions of praise or supplication. Paul, for one, expressly states in prayer “I kneel before the Father” (Eph. 3:14); to Timothy he expresses his desire “I want men everywhere to lift up holy hands in prayer” (1 Tim. 2:8). The author of Hebrews describes the church using the word panēguris, “festal gathering” (Heb. 12:22); the elements of the Greek word (related to the English panegyric) originally pictured a group of people celebrating with festive circle dancing.

Sacred Exclamations and Outbursts of Praise

New Testament worship was also marked by the use of certain terms that might be described as “sacred exclamations.” One such is the word Hallelujah! (hallēlouia, Rev. 19:1, 3–4, 6), taken directly from the Psalms of Israelite and Jewish worship, many of which begin and end with hallelu-Yah, “praise Yah,” a shortened form of the name Yahweh (Pss. 112–117; 146–150). Another exclamation is “Amen!” (Rom. 1:25; 1 Cor. 14:16; Rev. 5:14; 19:4; 22:20–21), also taken from the benedictions that close the first four books of the Psalms (Pss. 41:13; 72:19; 89:52; 106:48). “Amen” does not literally mean “so be it,” but is derived from the Hebrew root signifying truth, in the sense of dependability or reliability, and its use as a sacred exclamation has something of the character of the contemporary English colloquialisms “Right on!” and “You said it!” In the gospel of John, Jesus uses the term amen to introduce an especially pointed utterance, as in “Amēn, amēn, I say to you … ” (John 1:51, and others); the word is used in twenty-four places and, as usually in the Psalms, is always doubled. “Amen” also concludes the doxology of the prayer Jesus gave as a model for his disciples (Matt. 6:13 NASB), although the doxology does not appear in the earliest manuscripts. Another sacred exclamation is “Maranatha” (1 Cor. 16:22 NASB), an Aramaic phrase meaning either “Come, our Lord!” or “Our Lord has come!” In favor of the latter interpretation is the use of maranatha to conclude the thanksgiving after the Lord’s Supper in the second century order described in the Didachē, or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles. The expression “Hosanna!”, described above, also occurs in the same context (Didachē, 10). The fact that such sacred exclamations were left untranslated from the Hebrew or Aramaic, even in a Greek-speaking church, shows that they conveyed their meaning not through their rational content, but through their spiritual quality as bearers of a sense of awe and mystery in the presence of the holy Lord, in much the same manner as thanksgiving in tongues.

It is possible that some of the doxological outbursts in the Epistles (Rom. 11:33–36; Gal. 1:4–5; 1 Tim. 6:15–16; Jude 25) had their origin in spontaneous exclamations within the corporate worship of the church. Another type of outburst is the blessing, similar to the blessing or bƒrakhah of Hebraic worship. Such expressions as Paul’s great blessing of Ephesians 1:3–23, which begins, “Blessed be [eulogētos] the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ,” the blessing at the beginning of his second letter to the church in Corinth (2 Cor. 1:3 NASB), or the interjection in Romans 1:25 when he speaks of “the Creator, who is blessed forever. Amen” (NASB) belong to this category.

Later Development of Calendar and Liturgy

The New Testament does not directly stipulate the times of worship, though it seems clear that the church customarily assembled on the first day of the week (Acts 20:7; 1 Cor. 16:2), which may be equated with “the Lord’s Day” (hē kuriakē hēmera, Rev. 1:10), on which John received from Christ the revelation of “what must soon take place” (Rev. 1:1). Second-century sources provide more details; the Didachē (14) directs the church to “assemble and break bread and give thanks” on the Lord’s Day, and Justin Martyr (Apology, I, 67) explains that Sunday was chosen because the first day was both the day of the Creation and the day of the resurrection of Christ. Neither does the New Testament provide any calendar of distinctively Christian festivals; there is no mention, for example, of special annual celebrations of the birth or the resurrection of Christ.

Second-century Christian sources indicate that Christian worship had become differentiated into the “service [leitourgia, liturgy] of the word,” a time of prayer and instruction similar to the synagogue service, and the “service of the Lord’s table” or the observance of the Lord’s Supper. Worshipers who were not fully instructed, such as new converts, were dismissed before the Lord’s Supper. The New Testament, however, does not give any details about this differentiation. It appears that unbelievers might come into the assembly (1 Cor. 14:24), but there are no instructions to exclude them from the covenant meal and no rubrics that provide clues to an order of service.