sacrifice

Sacrifice and Atonement in the New Testament

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New Testament Christianity stands in the tradition of Israelite sacrificial worship in viewing Jesus Christ as the ultimate and final sacrifice.

The Sacrifice of Christ

The earliest Christians of Jerusalem frequented the temple for prayer and considered themselves Jews, although they were aware that the sacrifice of Jesus on Calvary had put an end to the requirements of Moses’ law. Luke records that Paul made a vow that involved a sacrifice at the temple in Jerusalem in order to appease the Jews (Acts 21:20–26). However, the writer of Hebrews is adamant in his argument that Jewish sacrificial ritual and all that pertained to the old covenant were made obsolete when Christ’s death initiated the new covenant (Heb. 8:1–13; 10:1–18).

The Concept of Atonement

The concept of atonement, so prominent in the sacrificial theology of the worship of Israel, is also important in the New Testament. Jesus Christ is called the hilastērion (Rom. 3:25), literally “instrument of propitiation,” the word used in the Greek Old Testament for the kapporet of the ark (Rom. 3:25). The word, also translated “expiation,” identifies Christ as the one who stands between the Lord and the covenant people as their covering, or atonement. John pictures this mediating role of Christ in his description of the victorious Lamb who is between the throne and the twenty-four elders who represent the redeemed of all ages (Rev. 5:6).

In both Old and New Testaments, it is the Lord who initiates atonement, and not the people. Because God chooses to overlook sin and maintain the covenant relationship, he provides a covering: the blood of the sacrifice applied to the ark in the Old Testament and the blood of his Son applied to the heavenly ark in the New Testament (Heb. 9:11). It is also the Lord who provides a substitute by instituting the sacrificial system under the Mosaic law and by giving his own Son as a sacrifice in the new covenant (Heb. 9:12–14). The offering of Isaac by his father, Abraham, with the ram provided as a substitute sacrifice, is a poignant picture of the substitutionary death of Christ in behalf of his people (Gen. 22:1–14).

Some Bible expositors teach that the temple will eventually be rebuilt in Jerusalem and the sacrificial system reinstated. Whether this actually occurs is irrelevant, since the death of Christ has made all such offerings unnecessary and inappropriate. Jesus Christ stands between Yahweh and the covenant people as their atonement covering, having become the sacrifice for their sins. Sacrifices acceptable to God under the new covenant include praise and worship (Rom. 12:1–2; Heb. 13:15; 1 Pet. 2:5, 9), good works and sharing (Heb. 13:16), and material or financial gifts (Phil. 4:18).

Sacrifice in Israelite Worship

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Sacrifices were a part of the tribute the Israelite worshiper offered to the God of the covenant. The Pentateuch goes into great detail concerning the altar and the sanctuary as the setting for sacrifice and the various types of sacrifices that were enacted in the worship of Israel.

Purposes of Sacrifice

In biblical times, sacrifice often accompanied the making of covenants, as in the cases of Noah (Gen. 8:20–9:17), Abram (Gen. 15:1–21), Isaac (Gen. 26:24–25), Jacob (Gen. 31:43–55; 35:6–12), and Moses on behalf of Israel (Exod. 24:1–8). Sacrifice was also a means of receiving direction from God; military leaders sometimes sacrificed to the Lord before inquiring whether they should go into battle, and Balaam offered a series of sacrifices to the Lord in order to determine whether he might pronounce a curse on Israel (Num. 23:1–30). Upon ascending the throne, Solomon offered extensive sacrifices at the tabernacle in Gibeon that he might receive the Lord’s guidance and wisdom to rule over Israel (2 Chron. 1:5–13). People also brought sacrificial offerings for purposes of thanksgiving, supplication, and atonement. Job was said to have made sacrifices on behalf of his children in case they had sinned against the Lord (Job 1:5).

Although grain, wine, and other foodstuffs were used in some offerings, the primary sacrifice was an unblemished animal. This was the only acceptable offering if the sacrifice were to atone for sin and may explain why the Lord refused Cain’s offering of produce but accepted the lamb brought by Abel (Gen. 4:3–4). Noah offered clean animals as burnt offerings after the Flood (Gen. 8:20); it is interesting that he differentiated between clean and unclean beasts even at this early period, before the law of Moses was given.

Sacrificial Altars

The altar, as the place where sacrifice was offered, occupied a focal position in Israelite worship. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob built altars to the Lord and made sacrifices, at which times it is often said that they “called upon the name of the Lord” (Gen. 12:8; 13:4; 22:9; 26:25; 33:20; 35:1). An altar could be built of earth or stones, but if stones were used they were to be rough and uncut (Exod. 20:25; Josh. 8:31). An altar built on behalf of the entire nation, as in the case of Elijah’s altar on Mount Carmel (1 Kings 18:30–32), was often constructed of twelve stones, representing the Israelite tribes. Unlike pagan altars of the same period, no altar used by Israel was to have steps up to it; the omission was to prevent the priest and worshiper from inadvertently exposing themselves to the altar as they approached it (Exod. 20:26).

The Mosaic Tabernacle From the giving of the Sinai covenant, the tabernacle or tent (’ohel), also called the “dwelling” (mishkan), was the central place of sacrifice for Israel; its functions were transferred to the temple or “house of the Lord” after its construction under Solomon. Both tabernacle and temple featured a three-stage approach to the presence of the Lord: the outer court surrounded the sanctuary proper, or Holy Place (miqdash, qodesh), which in turn led to the Holy of Holies, or inner sanctuary.

The Altar. The altar of burnt offering stood just within the entrance to the tabernacle courtyard. It was seven and one-half feet square and four and one-half feet high, constructed of acacia wood covered with brass, with a protruding horn at each corner. On this altar the priests burned the atonement offerings prescribed in the law of Moses. The altar of burnt offering was the first object a worshiper encountered when coming to the tabernacle; its prominent position was a reminder that sin must be dealt with as a matter of first priority.

The Sanctuary and Its Furnishings. Beyond the altar of burnt offering stood the laver, where the priests, who alone were allowed access to the tabernacle proper, washed both hands and feet before entering. The tabernacle structure itself was divided by a heavy, embroidered curtain into two rooms, the Holy Place, or sanctuary, and the Most Holy Place, or Holy of Holies. The sanctuary contained a seven-branched lamp made of gold, a golden table that held the consecrated bread for the priests, and the altar of incense, smaller by far than the brass altar outside and made of acacia wood covered with gold. At specified hours each morning and evening a specially prepared incense was burned on this altar, symbolizing the prayers of the covenant people to Yahweh.

The Holy of Holies. On the other side of the curtain, in the Most Holy Place, the ark of the covenant resided. This small, gold-covered box, with two fierce-looking cherubim guarding its cover, was the place where Yahweh met with Israel, and it symbolized the throne from which he ruled. Entry into the Most Holy Place was restricted to the high priest, who went in only once each year on the Day of Atonement.

Covenant Requirements of Sacrifice

When Yahweh granted his covenant with Israel on Mount Sinai, he gave detailed instructions for the sacrifices that were to be a part of the nation’s covenant responsibility as acts of tribute to the great King. These instructions included provisions for general sacrifices, sacrifices for consecration, and special festival sacrifices.

General Sacrifices. The law given to Moses mandated a variety of sacrifices. In sin offerings and guilt offerings, the blood of the slain animal was sprinkled on the altar to atone for the sin of the worshiper (Lev. 6:24–30; 7:1–6). Peace offerings were of either animals or grain; the worshiper brought these offerings on a voluntary basis as a thanksgiving or for other personal reasons (Lev. 5:14–17; 7:11–36). Whole burnt offerings were eaten by neither the priests nor the worshiper but were burned in their entirety on the altar (Lev. 3:1–17). Unlike pagan nations, which viewed sacrifices as food for the gods, Israel understood that Yahweh received only their “soothing aroma” (Num. 28:2 nasb). Offerings were brought in various combinations for the acts of cleansing required by the law, such as a woman’s purification after childbirth, recovery from certain diseases, and contact with unclean objects or dead bodies. Other sacrifices made restitution for trespasses against one’s fellow Israelites or for inadvertent legal infractions. A man who had completed a Nazirite vow was also to offer a sacrifice. The law specified that particular sacrifices, consisting of a burnt offering along with flour and wine, be made twice daily on behalf of the whole nation. These were doubled on the Sabbath and were always made in addition to sacrifices for special occasions.

Sacrifices for Consecration. The consecration of priests and holy objects also required sacrificing animals and applying the blood to the person or thing being sanctified. After the tabernacle had been completed, Aaron and his sons were cleansed and made holy in this way before assuming the priesthood. The tabernacle itself and all its furnishings were likewise sprinkled with blood before they were fit to be used in the worship of Yahweh.

Festival Sacrifices. The Mosaic laws established three major annual festivals, all of which involved the presentation of sacrifices: Passover, Pentecost, and the Feast of Tabernacles, which included the Feast of Trumpets and the Day of Atonement. Specified portions of the offerings of wine, grain, oil, and flesh were given to the priests; internal organs and fat were burned on the altar as a sweet odor to the Lord; and the rest was usually returned to the worshipers as food for themselves and their families. This was particularly true of Passover, the feast that commemorated Israel’s deliverance from Egyptian slavery. Passover was essentially a covenant meal, celebrating the event of the exodus from Egypt, which had established Israel as the Lord’s covenant people. Hence, when the worshiper received back the sacrifice he had given, this was a picture of the Lord hosting his people at his own table and of their participation with him in a reaffirmation of the covenant.

Sacrifice and Atonement

In Israel’s worship, the link between sacrifice and atonement for sin is most clearly seen in the ceremonies associated with the Day of Atonement. On this day each year, the high priest was to enter the inner sanctuary bearing the blood of the sacrifice from the brass altar outside. Sprinkling the blood on the lid of the ark of the covenant, he made atonement for the entire nation. Kapporet, the Hebrew word for the lid that covered the ark, also carries the meaning of atonement or propitiation, in the sense of “covering.” The blood atoned for Israel’s sin by symbolically covering the kapporet so the Lord could no longer see it. Yahweh’s forgiveness was mediated; the sin did not cease to exist, but God refused to look at it or allow it to disrupt his relationship with the covenant nation. “Blessed is he whose transgressions are forgiven,” writes David, “whose sins are covered” (Ps. 32:1). When the principle of parallelism is applied to this verse it is clear that the two phrases are the same: one’s transgression is forgiven when the sin is covered.

It is also true that under Mosaic law the worshipers, mindful of their sin, understood the sacrificed animal as a substitution for their own lives. Because all sin was a violation of God’s law, any transgression was a sin against the Lord himself and punishable by death. Violators could be forgiven only if a death occurred, either their own or that of a substitute. From the Christian point of view, the sacrifices of the tabernacle and temple could not really take away sin (Heb. 10:4); the entire Mosaic sacrificial system is an extended picture of the true atonement that was to come in Jesus, the Lamb of God.

Local and Family Sacrifices

The concept of sacrifice extended beyond the centralized rituals of the Mosaic sanctuary. Apparently the building of altars as acts of personal or family devotion was an accepted practice in Israel, even when the tabernacle was in place with its complement of priests and Levites, who were designated to officiate at sacrificial rituals. Joshua sacrificed to the Lord after the unfortunate episode with Achan and the subsequent victory at Ai (Josh. 8:30–31). The men of Israel built an altar at Mizpah after punishing the tribe of Benjamin (Judg. 21:4). Samuel prepared a sacrifice for the people at Ramah (1 Sam. 7:17). David’s family made sacrifice at the new moon, as did the court of Saul (1 Sam. 20:18–29), although new moon festivals were observed with special sacrificial offerings at the tabernacle site. Despite the Law’s mandate of one sanctuary for the worship of Yahweh (Deut. 12:5; 16:16), these acts are not condemned, as is the continued worship at the various “high places” (1 Kings 22:43; 2 Kings 15:4; and others), probably because they did not pretend to be rites that rivaled those of the central sanctuary.

Davidic Worship and the Sacrifice of Praise

After David became king he installed the ark of the covenant in a tent in Zion. The tabernacle with its daily round of sacrifices was located several miles away in Gibeon, but the Most Holy Place was apparently empty for more than sixty years. The Bible does not tell us what the high priest did on the Day of Atonement when he carried the blood from the altar into the sanctuary, which no longer housed the ark. It does provide a description, however, of the worship activities that were carried on before the ark in David’s tent. Except for the celebration at its initial installation, there is no reference to burnt offerings being made before the ark in Zion; instead the picture is of teams of worshipers singing, dancing, playing instruments, and prophesying in rotating shifts, day and night (1 Chron. 16:1–38; 25:1–8). This is apparently what both the psalmist and the writer of Hebrews have in mind when they speak of the sacrifice of praise or thanksgiving, the fruit of lips that give thanks to the name of the Lord (Pss. 107:22; 116:17; Heb. 13:15).

Neglect and Restoration of Sacrifice

After Solomon built the first temple in Jerusalem, the ark was returned to the inner sanctuary and the altar of burnt offering moved to the temple courtyard. Eventually this temple was destroyed and rebuilt and then destroyed again. During periods of apostasy in Israel the sacrifices to Yahweh were neglected; in times of reform they were reinstituted. At the time of the birth of Christ, Herod’s temple was being built in Jerusalem, and it was to this structure that Jesus was carried when his mother brought sacrifices for her purification according to the law. There is no record that Jesus participated in sacrificial rituals, although he did attend more than one national feast in Jerusalem and ate the Passover lamb with his disciples.

Covenant Worship in Israel

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Although the Lord had granted the covenant to the patriarchs of Israel, the covenant at Mount Sinai was a new departure in the people’s relationship to God. The covenant established the structure of the worship of Israel as a distinct people and formed the basis for the prophetic word and the ongoing religious life of the community.

Israel’s History Begins with the Covenant

The children of Israel, who became the people of Yahweh, were essentially pagans. Although the Lord had appeared to their ancestors and entered into covenant with them, the nation of slaves in Egypt worshiped the same gods their heathen neighbors revered. This is not surprising, in view of the prevailing belief of the times that the jurisdiction of the various deities was confined to a specific geographic location. Those residing in Egypt, for example, paid tribute to whatever gods governed that territory.

The Pharaoh’s objection is understandable, therefore, when Moses requested that the Hebrews be allowed to go into the desert to worship Yahweh, who was not an Egyptian god. The request had dangerous implications, for it revealed a conflict of interests. If the Hebrews were to declare allegiance to a god who reigned in the desert, they might decide it would be to their advantage to go to live in his territory. And whose god would ultimately be in charge—the God of the Hebrews or the gods of Egypt?

The idea was a novel one for the Hebrews as well. If the God of their fathers truly intended to break the yoke of Egypt from their backs, it might be in their best interests to follow Moses into the desert and sacrifice to this Yahweh. On the other hand, who could be sure that he was stronger than the gods of Egypt, especially on their own territory?

Convinced by the mighty miracles the Lord performed, the Hebrews and a large company of Egyptian converts began their trek to Mount Sinai to worship. But they soon discovered that the kind of worship Yahweh required differed from the pagan practices to which they were accustomed. The basis for the relationship was distinctively different. This new worship was to be a response to their God’s mighty acts of deliverance on their behalf, not the placating of a capricious deity who could at any moment withhold his favor and do them harm. Although the covenant Yahweh was to make with them in the desert had its roots in his pact made with Abraham and affirmed with Isaac and Jacob, history for Israel as a worshiping community really begins with the Red Sea deliverance from Egyptian slavery and the subsequent act of worship at the mountain of God. In these events, the God who had entered into a covenant with their ancestor Abraham would now extend the covenant to the entire family of Abraham’s descendants, and to others as well.

The Covenant at Sinai

The agreement the Lord granted Israel on Mount Sinai has the same essential structure as that of the ancient treaty, which described the previous relationship of the treaty partners and then laid down the requirements of the new relationship being enacted. Since, for Israel as a whole, the history of Yahweh’s dealings with the nation really begins in the Exodus from Egypt, the historical prologue of the covenant also begins at that point; Yahweh, as the great King (Pss. 47:2; 95:3; Mal. 1:14; Matt. 5:35) granting the treaty, identifies himself as the one who has delivered his people from slavery (Exod. 19:4; 20:1–2). The stipulations are, of course, the ten words or commandments (Exod. 20:2–17), the basic requirement being total loyalty to Yahweh and a prohibition against alliances with any other authority. Covenant sanctions, in the form of blessings and cursings, do not appear as such in the Sinai narrative but are found in Leviticus (Lev. 26) and in Deuteronomy (Deut. 28–29), Moses’ great reiteration of the covenant just before Israel enters the land of Canaan, the territory granted in the treaty.

These treaty formalities, however, do not obscure the fact that the Sinai covenant is in the first instance an act of worship, an act of reverent submission to one who reveals himself in majesty and power. The narrative introducing the actual granting of the covenant is filled with the imagery of theophany, the divine self-revelation of the Lord in thunder, lightning, smoke, the sound of the trumpet (Exod. 19:16–19). Yahweh has called his people to be his worshipers, a kingdom of priests (Exod. 19:6). The enactment and ratification of the covenant are acts of worship; the covenant is sealed as the people are sprinkled with the blood of the sacrifice and the elders ascend Sinai to eat and drink the covenant meal with Yahweh (Exod. 24:8–11). Instructions are given for the creation of the altar and the tabernacle, a sanctuary at which the covenant may be remembered and maintained through ongoing ceremonies (Exod. 25–27). The tablets containing the covenant text are deposited in the ark of witness and placed in the tabernacle’s inner sanctuary, the shrine of Yahweh. Just as a “great king” granting a covenant to his vassal required the latter to appear in his courts at specified intervals to bring whatever tribute was agreed upon at the making of the covenant, so Israel is required to appear before the Lord for this purpose, to “bring an offering and come into his courts” (Ps. 96:8). These appearances are three annual festivals stipulated in the Pentateuch’s festival calendars (Exod. 23:14–17; Lev. 23; Deut. 16:1–17), times of rejoicing and celebration in the presence of the Lord.

The Covenant Formulary

The covenant between God and Israel is frequently distilled into a short formulary—“I will be their God and they shall be my people” (Gen. 17:7; Lev. 26:12, 45; Deut. 29:10–13; and others). This phrase is found in various forms throughout the writings of the prophets (Isa. 51:15–16; Jer. 31:1, 33; Ezek. 11:20; 37:27; Zech. 8:8; 13:9) as they warn the people of Judah of the judgment that will surely follow their violation of the covenant stipulations. The formula is a basic definition of the relationship that was to exist between God and Israel. Henceforth, Yahweh would be identified with this particular nation—he would be known as their God, the God of Israel. His name would be upon them, as signified by the circumcision of their bodies. They, in turn, were to be exclusively his people. In response to his protection and blessing they must give him their undivided loyalty and complete obedience. They must love the Lord with all that they are and everything they possess (Deut. 6:4–5) and demonstrate that love through joyous and festive worship; they must also love one another as brothers (Lev. 19:18) because they are all in covenant with the same God.

Covenant Liturgics: Sacrifice, Festivals, Declamations

The worship through which Israel expressed its loyalty to the Lord took the form of sacrifice, festivals, and various forms of verbal expression or declamation. The Israelite worshiper brought sacrificial offerings to the designated sanctuary, where the priests offered them on the altar. Elements of the offering differed according to the purpose of the sacrifice. The daily sacrifices included an animal to be burned whole, grain or flour, and wine. Offerings brought to atone for violation of the law were always animals, with the blood used for ceremonial cleansing ceremonies. On festal occasions the major portion of the offering was given back to the worshiper after a certain amount was taken out for the use of the priest. On these occasions the people were viewed as receiving Yahweh’s own food; thus, he hosted them at his table in a reaffirmation of the covenant relationship. The Passover sacrifice, in particular, was understood in this way, as it called to remembrance the miraculous Red Sea deliverance that had formed Israel into the people of God. In the same manner, the Christian covenant meal, the Lord’s Supper, recalls God’s deliverance of his own through the death and resurrection of Christ. The festivals were a fulfillment of Israel’s obligation to enter the courts of the Lord to rejoice and give thanks to him.

Accompanying, and at times even displacing, the sacrifice of animals or grain was the “sacrifice of thanksgiving” or praise (Ps. 116:17; cf. Pss. 40:6–10; 50:7–15; 51:16–17). This outpouring of praise was principally a musical offering of tribute to the God of the covenant, and the Psalms are the literary deposit of this activity. In addition to sacrifice, other aspects of the covenant structure find expression in utterance associated with worship. At the offering of the firstfruits, for example, the Israelite worshipers are to confess their faith in the form of a historical recital of Yahweh’s deliverance in the Exodus (Deut. 26:1–10). Joshua recited the history of Yahweh’s deeds in behalf of Israel in leading the people in a renewal of the covenant at Shechem (Josh. 24:2–13). We often find such recitations in the Psalms (for example, Ps. 136).

The laws of the covenant were sometimes arranged in metrical groups, suitable for recitation in worship (Exod. 21:12, 15–17; 22:18–22; 23:1–9; 34:11–26; Lev. 18:7–18; Deut. 27:15–26), and the Psalms suggest that they were so used (Pss. 50:16; 81:10). The covenant sanctions could also be recited in worship, as with some of the material in the blessings and curses of Deuteronomy (Deut. 28:2–6, 15–19); Moses’ final songs (Deut. 32:1–43; 33:2–29) are musical settings of such material. The prophets of Israel seem to have typically delivered their pronouncements of judgment at the sanctuaries (Isa. 6:1–13; Jer. 7:1–2; Amos 7:10–13), perhaps in association with the festivals when large groups of worshipers would be present (Isa. 1:10–15; Amos 5:21–24; Mic. 6:6–8); the speeches of the prophets are really an extension of the curse element of the covenant ceremony. Occasionally in the Psalms we hear the prophetic voice of judgment (Pss. 14; 50; 95:8–11).

The Covenant Lawsuit

This distinctive form of prophetic address deserves special attention because of its roots in the covenant worship of Israel. As the spokesmen (Hebrew navi’) for Yahweh, the prophets defended the covenant whenever Israel broke its vows of loyalty and drifted into idolatry. Acting as lawyers for Yahweh, the plaintiff, they brought formal charges against Israel for unfaithfulness, in what has been called the “covenant lawsuit” (Hebrew riv). Examples can be found in Deuteronomy 32:1–43; Isaiah 1:1–31; Micah 6:1–16; Jeremiah 2:1–3:5; 34:12–22; and Hosea 4:1–3. In these indictments the Lord, through the prophet, typically protests his own faithfulness to the covenant. He has brought the people of Israel out of bondage and established them in the land he promised them. He has protected them from curses and evil. Israel, however, has not kept the covenant. Yahweh lists their violations: the people have gone into idolatry and forgotten their King; they have oppressed the poor and enslaved their countrymen; they have not observed the Sabbath. The nation is called by the Lord to account for its sins before the covenant witnesses: mountains (Mic. 6:2), heaven (Deut. 32:1; Isa. 1:2; Jer. 2:12), and earth (Deut. 32:1; Isa. 1:2; Mic. 6:2). Because the covenant is legally binding, and the witnesses attest to its violation, Israel has no defense. Therefore, the prophets pronounce judgment on the unfaithful nation. Eventually they come to see the covenant as irrevocably broken. Only a small proportion of the people are faithful to Yahweh. Enactment of the curse of the covenant is inevitable: the nation will be invaded and taken captive to be resettled in other lands. As Micah says, “Her wound is incurable” (Mic. 1:9).

Covenant Renewal

A nation that refused to keep the terms of a covenant in the ancient world ran the risk of being invaded and punished by its lord. The gods were also expected to avenge covenant violations with poor crops, drought, famine, pestilence, and other punishments. God’s covenant with Israel also incorporated a list of curses that would follow its violation, and it was he who would mete out the punishment. Throughout the history of Israel there were periods in which the covenant with Yahweh was neglected or forgotten entirely. Frequently these lapses resulted in God’s judgment on the nation. Kings of both Israel and Judah, who set the religious standard for the nation, led the people into the worship of pagan deities. However, God raised up righteous prophets, priests, and kings who led the nation in a series of covenant renewals, reinstituting the worship of Yahweh according to the stated requirements of the covenant.

The book of Deuteronomy is an example of covenant renewal in the form of a farewell address given by Moses as he prepares to die and as the nation embarks on the conquest of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership. Later, Joshua leads the people in an act of covenant renewal (Josh. 24:1–28) just before his own death. After consulting the Book of the Covenant to ascertain the “due order” for the worship of Yahweh (1 Chron. 15:13), King David appoints musicians to worship in Zion before the ark of the covenant in rotating shifts, twenty-four hours a day, to renew and maintain the covenant in the sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving; many of the psalms had their origin in this setting. At the dedication of the temple in Jerusalem, King Solomon led Israel in a festival of covenant renewal (1 Kings 8:1–9:9). Kings Josiah (2 Chron. 34:15–35:19) and Hezekiah (2 Chron. 29:1–31:21) also attempted to restore the covenant by reading its stipulations to the people and commanding that it be celebrated with a covenant meal. Ezra the priest and Nehemiah the governor renewed the covenant with the remnant of Israel who returned to the land from their captivity in Babylon (Ezra 9:1–10:19; Neh. 12:26–13:31).

The New Covenant

In the view of the prophets, the only possible remedy for Israel’s dilemma is the cutting of a new covenant. Not with rebels will this new covenant be made, but only with a believing remnant, which will eventually be saved out of captivity and returned to the land. They will seek the Lord and remain faithful to him. In this way, the covenant people will survive and not be entirely cut off; the nation will have a future. To this remnant the law will be a delight; it will be written on their hearts, not just on stone tablets (Jer. 31:31–34). This people will show forth the glory of Yahweh in covenant worship.

The blessedness that God’s people will experience under the new covenant is described by the prophets in typical covenant terms as a reverse of the curses (Jer. 32:42). Instead of famine there will be prosperity (Isa. 54:2); in place of invasion will be peace and joy (Isa. 55:12; Jer. 33:16); the voice of bridegroom and bride will be returned to the land (Jer. 33:11); wild animals will no longer be a threat but will become harmless (Isa. 11:6–8). The new covenant will come in the form of a person, whom Isaiah calls “the servant” (Isa. 42:1–3, 6–7) and describes as the one who suffers (Isa. 52:13–14; 53:1–6). In the end, Yahweh’s covenant with Israel requires an obedience that only Jesus, the Servant of God, can fulfill (Matt. 12:18–21).

Words for Offering and Sacrifice in the Old Testament

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Sacrifice and offering were a part of Israelite worship, and extensive portions of the Pentateuch are devoted to the regulation of these activities (Lev. 1–7; 22–23; Num. 18; 28–29; and others). This brief survey can only mention the major terms associated with the sacrificial cultus.

All sacrifices were to be offered to Yahweh by the priest (kohen), who would “draw near” (hiqriv) to the altar (mizbe‡ḥ) to sacrifice (zavaḥ) in the worshiper’s behalf. The worshipers might bring an offering of meal or grain (minḥah) or an animal for a sacrifice (zevaḥ); individuals bringing an animal for sacrifice usually killed and dressed it themselves. Depending on the particular need, the worshipers could bring a sin offering (ḥatta’t), a guilt or trespass offering (’asham), or a peace offering (shelem or zevaḥ shƒlamim).

The officiating priest might present the offering as a burnt offering (‘olah, literally an offering “going up”) or as an offering made by fire (’ishsheh); he might wave it (henif) as a wave offering (tƒnufah) or pour out a drink offering (nesekh). Regular offerings and sacrifices were mandated for the various festivals and the daily and monthly observances, but the individual worshiper might also bring a voluntary offering (nƒdavah), or a votive offering, that is, one brought to pay or fulfill (shillem) a vow (neder) he or she had made (Num. 30). Any offering or gift brought to the Lord might be called a “holy thing” (qodesh), that is, something set apart, or a “dedicated thing” (qorban).

It is a striking phenomenon that the Psalms, the hymnody of the sanctuary, so seldom refer to the sacrificial cultus. When the Psalms refer to sacrifice, it is almost always the sacrifice made by praise and thanksgiving. A prophetic voice speaks in Psalm 50:14, 23 declaring the Lord’s preference that the worshiper “sacrifice thanksgiving” (zavaḥ todah) to him, rather than sacrifice animals. The worshiper of Psalm 27:6 indicates his intention to “sacrifice with shouts of joy” (zivḥei tƒru‘ah). Vows are paid by praise and thanksgiving (Pss. 22:25; 50:14; 65:1). When the offerings and sacrifices of the Mosaic cultus are mentioned, it is often in a derogatory way (Pss. 40:6; 50:8–13; 51:16).

This situation is not as strange as it may seem. When David brought the ark to Zion, he established worship there without the sacrificial altar, which remained with the Mosaic sanctuary at Gibeon (1 Chron. 21:29). Many of the Psalms had their origin in this prophetic worship of the “tent of David” and were composed by David himself or by Levitical musicians who did not officiate at sacrifices. Indeed, sacrificial terminology is largely missing from their literature.

THE BEARD

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When I was a candidate for Associate Minister at Grace Memorial Church in San Jacinto, CA, I sported a full, thick, red beard.

One of the seniors in the church, Don Solomon, asked, “Why do have that beard?”

I graciously (I hope!) responded, “How come you don’t have one Don?

My point being it was simply a matter of personal preference. Don then asked, “Would you be willing to cut it off in order to come on staff here?”

To which I replied, “Absolutely! If that’s what it would take to be able to minister here I’d do it!”

Don Solomon, who was speaking for his generation in that church, held a view that pastors should look a certain way. I didn’t fit their preconceived ideal.

I ended up being offered the position, was never pressed to shave, and Don Solomon became a very dear friend! In fact, Laurie and I eventually held a Bible Study in Don and Margaret Solomon’s home!

A very important lesson is this: To serve sometimes means personal sacrifice; sometimes our heart and motives for ministry are put to the test. I know mine were in this simple request because I really liked my beard; I felt it helped me look more “pastoral”!

Well, God honors humility in our serving one another — and oft times He astounds us with His answer(s)! The great blessing for me was becoming a close friend with Don — and it remained so until he was “called home”!