Central to biblical worship is the covenant or agreement between God and the people of God. The covenant regulates worship and provides much of its structure, rationale, and vocabulary.
Function of the Covenant
The treaty or covenant was a political format for maintaining relationships without the use of force. It was used extensively in ancient Near Eastern culture to define acceptable modes of behavior among city-states and also between individuals. Although Israel’s pagan neighbors were familiar with covenants as political treaties, they did not enter into covenant with their gods, who were undependable and treacherous and could not be held to any sort of agreement. A treaty between political states could be imposed by a strong ruler, known as the “lord” in covenant parlance, upon a weaker, known as the “servant”; or a weaker king might petition the stronger to grant a treaty for purposes of protection, since these pacts were primarily military agreements. Under the terms of such treaties, the lord is bound to protect the servant, and the servant is required to give allegiance to his lord alone; he must make no alliances with any other king and must fight together with his own lord against all his lord’s enemies. He must also treat other client kings who are in covenant with his lord as brothers, and he cannot harm them or invade their territories. In addition, he must appear before his lord at specified times to bring tribute.
Israel’s worship of Yahweh was based on this concept, which came to regulate and define its worship practices. This had been true for the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and it would eventually be true for the Christian church. It is the covenant that provides the basis for, and is the essence of, the relationship between the Lord God and his people. Through its framework they learn his ways, pledge their allegiance to him, and respond to him in worship. Worship at Sinai would take the form of the enactment of the covenant; the covenant would then provide regulations and a structure for worship.
Basic Covenant Structure
Political covenants, or treaties, were drawn up according to a specific pattern. They began with a historical prologue, in which the lord, or “great king,” identified himself and often narrated the history of his relationship with the client king. He then indicated the boundaries of the territory he was granting to the servant king. This was followed by a statement of stipulations incumbent upon his partner and a listing of sanctions: blessing that would follow obedience to the stipulations and curses that would follow any violations of them. The servant king took an oath; the lord usually did not, for his reputation, or “name,” was sufficient guarantee that he would honor the pact. Witnesses were invoked, not only to listen to the terms of the treaty, but also to carry out its sanctions. Witnesses always included the gods of both covenant partners and frequently heaven and earth, rocks, mountains, or other natural elements. Although Israel, like its pagan neighbors, had viewed the gods as being attached to specific territories, it came to understand Yahweh as the God of the whole land, whose territory was not localized and whose dominion extended to all nations (Josh. 3:11).
Covenants occasionally incorporated a sign, such as a physical scar, to remind the partners of their treaty obligations. For Israel the sign of circumcision was such an identifying mark, as were the keeping of the Sabbath and the observance of the Passover Feast (Josh. 5:2–5; Exod. 13:6–9; 31:13). The people of the servant king are viewed as having been formed by the lord through the covenant, and because the ancients customarily named whatever they made, the servant king or nation is often renamed by the lord as a sign of his ownership. Through the prophet Isaiah God says, “But now, thus says the Lord, your Creator, O Jacob, and He who formed you, O Israel, ‘Do not fear, for I have redeemed you; I have called you by name; you are Mine!’ ” (Isa. 43:1 nasb).
Within the written text of the treaty itself, the granter laid down requirements for the periodic reading of its words to the servant people. This reading was to be done in the language with which they were familiar; there could be no plea of ignorance in the event of a violation. In addition, the covenant partners made provision for the document to be permanently stored, usually in the shrine of the most powerful god witness, as a reminder of its stipulations.
Ratifying the Covenant
The ceremony of ratification that usually accompanied the making of a covenant often included a blood sacrifice. Partners walked between the cut pieces of the animal (hence the Hebrew expression karat brit, “cut a covenant”) or were sprinkled with its blood in order to identify with it. Implied in this exercise was the thought, “God do so to me, and more also, if I violate the terms of this treaty.” A biblical example of this ceremony is the covenant God made with Abram (Gen. 15). Ratification could also be achieved with a meal shared by the covenant partners. Typically this involved drinking the blood of the sacrificed animal and eating its flesh. Since the worshipers of Yahweh were prohibited from consuming blood, wine was substituted in their ceremonies. Again, identification with the sacrificial animal was the underlying theme of this ritual. A third ceremony appears in the covenant made between David and Jonathan and is alluded to in other biblical narratives (Isa. 22:21; 61:10; Ruth 3:9). Jonathan removes his coat and places it on David, identifying himself with his friend. He also gives David his weapons belt, as if to say, “Your enemies are my enemies; I obligate myself to fight for you” (1 Sam. 18:1–4).
Covenant Terminology
A number of technical terms that adhere to the covenant process are common in the Bible. The covenant lord is also the king, or frequently the great king (2 Kings 18:19), in contrast to the servant, who is also a king, albeit of lesser stature. The great king is sometimes called the shepherd, and his servants are known as sheep. The great king is a father and lord (Mal. 1:6), and all servants in covenant with the same king are known as brothers. The phrase heaven and earth refers to covenant witnesses; when biblical writers speak of their end or passing away (Isa. 34:4; Matt. 24:35; Rev. 6:14; 21:1, 4; cf. 2 Cor. 5:17), they are declaring that the covenant witnessed by them has been broken and will no longer be in effect.
Ancient treaties refer to the covenant stipulations and sanctions as the words. The Ten Commandments (Exod. 20:1–17), which constitute the text of the treaty between Yahweh and Israel, are known in Hebrew as “these words” (dvarim). Therefore, keeping the words of the Lord, or hiding them in one’s heart, means memorizing and giving attention to the text of the covenant. The land (’eretz) promised in Scripture to the patriarchs is the territory granted by Yahweh in his covenant with Israel. ’Eretz can also be translated as “earth,” meaning ground or soil, but rarely indicates the global earth, since the ancients had no such concept. To know (Jer. 10:25), to follow after (Deut. 13:4), and to love (Deut. 11:22–23) are all terms that describe loyalty to the lord of the covenant. Mercy (ḥesed), sometimes translated as “lovingkindness” or “steadfast love” in English versions, is favor based on the covenant, rather than a general attitude of benevolence. For the people of God, then, ḥesed is God’s protection and care, based on his covenant relationship with them; the best translation is “covenant love.”
Justice, faithfulness, and righteousness all indicate a fulfillment of covenant stipulations, whereas judgment is the taking effect of the sanctions (Deut. 6:25). References to warfare or to deliverance, or the use of the term savior (deliverer), all indicate that the writer has the covenant in mind, since it is the covenant lord who goes to war in the role of savior to deliver the servant people. Peace is a condition the granter promises in return for the servant’s obedience. It is not defined as an absence of trouble per se, but is, specifically, the great king’s protection of his servant from outside invaders or from attack by the lord himself. In a larger sense, peace is salvation. The word is shalom and connotes the blessing of the covenant granter and the resultant wholeness of the entire person or nation. Shalom is the essence of the covenant relationship.
Ancient Hittite and Egyptian treaties make extensive use of the number seven, as does the covenant between Yahweh and Israel. Significantly, the Hebrew word for “swear,” nishba‘, literally translated is “to seven oneself.” Thus, in Israel, a person could not take a covenant oath without using the number seven. This has important implications for the understanding of many parts of the biblical literature, such as the Revelation to John, as covenant documents.