praise

Music in the Worship of the Old Testament

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Music was an important element of both temple and synagogue worship. Undoubtedly this music and its forms influenced the form and use of music in the early Christian church. Both Jews and Christians revere a transcendent God and both give honor to Scripture. For these reasons and others, Jewish synagogue worship and modern Christian services are similar in content and spirit.

Through almost three thousand years of Hebrew/Christian history, music has been inseparable from worship, and the Bible contains much of our early heritage of worship song. The Psalms come from many periods of the ancient Jewish culture, and they were augmented by canticles that date back to Israel’s deliverance from Egypt.

Synagogue worship probably developed among the Jews as a result of their dispersion in the fifth century before Christ. With its emphasis on the reading and explanation of Scripture, prayers, and the singing of psalms and canticles, it was very significant in the framing of early Christian worship. Music in the synagogue was led by cantors—soloists who may have been trained in the temple Levitical ministry—and included some congregational participation.

The New Testament era began with the canticles surrounding Christ’s birth, recorded in the Gospel of St. Luke. The new faith and its expression were supported with several types of music—“psalms and hymns and spiritual songs” according to the apostle Paul. The epistles do contain some general principles: the Scriptures were to be read and the gospel was to be preached, certain types of prayer were encouraged, and believers were expected to celebrate the Eucharist or Communion.

The Early Traditions

The first biblical reference to musical experience is a narrative of musical thanksgiving, led by Moses and his sister Miriam after the Israelites had been delivered from the Egyptians: Then Moses and the Israelites sang this song to the Lord: “I will sing to the Lord, for he is highly exalted. The horse and its rider he has hurled into the sea.… ” Then Miriam the prophetess, Aaron’s sister, took a tambourine in her hand, and all the women followed her, with tambourines and dancing. Miriam sang to them: “Sing to the Lord, for he is highly exalted. The horse and its rider he has hurled into the sea” (Exod. 15:1, 20–21).

This performance was both instrumental and vocal, involved both men and women, and was accompanied by expressive movement. The song was a prototype of the expressions of praise to God that are found throughout the Old Testament, particularly in the Psalms.

Erik Routley has reminded us that there are two musical worship traditions in the Old Testament: one was spontaneous and ecstatic, the other formal and professional (Church Music and the Christian Faith, p. 6). The first of these is mentioned as part of Saul’s preparation to become king of Israel; the prophet Samuel was giving the instructions:

After that you will go to Gibeah of God … as you approach the town, you will meet a procession of prophets coming down from the high place with lyres, tambourines, flutes, and harps being played before them, and they will be prophesying. The Spirit of the Lord will come upon you in power, and you will prophesy with them, and you will be changed into a different person. (1 Sam. 10:5–6)

In this early period, music was apparently expected to assist the worshiper’s experience of God. The same idea is expressed in connection with an occasion when the Prophet Elisha foretold God’s judgment: “But now bring me a harpist.” While the harpist was playing the hand of the Lord came upon Elijah and said, “This is what the Lord says” (2 Kings 3:15–16). The expectation that music can affect human behavior (ethos) was common in Scripture times and has persisted through history. The Bible also records an early use of music in therapy: whenever the spirit from God came upon Saul, David would take his harp and play. Then relief would come to Saul; he would feel better, and the evil spirit would leave him (see 1 Samuel 16:23).

Music in the Temple

The second Old Testament musical tradition—the music for the temple—was formal and professional, and was initiated by Israel’s shepherd-king who was himself a musician and hymn composer: David told the leaders of the Levites to appoint their brothers as singers to sing joyful songs, accompanied by musical instruments: lyres, harps, and cymbals (1 Chron. 15:16).

As priest-musicians, these performers gave full time to their musical service. They were chosen on the basis of their talent (1 Chron. 15:22) and were thoroughly trained, serving five years of apprenticeship before being admitted to the regular chorus. The Jewish choir was organized under at least three composer-conductors—Asaph, Herman, and Jeduthun (2 Chron. 5:12). The singing was accompanied by many kinds of instruments—lyres, pipes, harps, trumpets, and cymbals—and was also associated with dance (Ps. 150:4).

The Musical Sound

In ancient Hebrew worship, the words of Scripture were never spoken without melody; to do so was considered to be inappropriate. They were always sung in a fervent cantillation. (“Shout to God with loud songs of joy!” Ps. 47:1). They were accompanied by instruments in what is believed to have been a sort of heterophony, in which the instruments provided embellishments of the vocal melody. As in most early cultures, Hebrew instruments were of three basic types:

  • String—kinnor (“lyre,” related to the Greeks’ kithara) and nebhel (“harp” with up to ten strings, sometimes called “psaltery” in kjv).
  • Wind—shophar (a ram’s horn), halil (a double-reed, like the oboe), hazozerah (a metal trumpet), and ugabh (a vertical flute, used mainly in secular music).
  • Percussion—toph (tambourine, or hand drum), zelzelim (cymbals), and mena an im (a sistrum). (See The New Oxford History of Music, vol. 1, 295–296, and footnoted references.)

In Old Testament worship antiphonal singing was probably the norm, as evidenced by the fact that many of the Psalms are couched in a responsorial pattern. In modern liturgical church practice, each verse is divided into a versicle and response.

V: God be merciful unto us, and bless us;
R: And cause his face to shine upon us. (Psalm 67:1, KJV)
V: O give thanks unto the Lord; for he is good:
R: For his mercy endureth for ever. (Psalms 136:1, KJV)

It is natural for us to try to guess what this ancient music sounded like. Some Jewish worship musicians insist that they still retain much of the original character of their chants, even though they may have been originally preserved only by oral tradition. Recent musicologists have reasoned that the early Christian chant styles were patterned after Jewish antecedents. It is probable that certain traditions in the Byzantine chant of the Greek, Antiochian, and Palestinian churches carry some remnants of the original sounds. Eric Werner says that all the foremost authorities (Curt Sachs, A. Z. Idelsohn, and R. Lachman) agree that the chants were based on four-note (tetra-chordal) melodic motives, and that “the archetype of chant was similar to ancient Gregorian tunes, which means that they were based upon small melodic patterns of a rather narrow range, usually not exceeding a fourth or a fifth” (Eric Werner, Jewish Music, 623).

Within the last few years, French musician and scholar Suzanne Haik Vantoura released the results of her four years of research in the book La Musique de la Bible Revelee (The Music of the Bible Revealed). She is convinced that mysterious signs scattered throughout the Hebrew scriptures, both above and below the letters, are actually a system of musical notation, and not punctuation or accent marks as has been traditionally believed. Furthermore, she has reduced these signs to a system of notation, and has transcribed and recorded the melodies for approximately three hours of Bible music.

Werner also describes the musical performance in the Jews’ Second Temple: The morning sacrifice was accompanied by three trumpet blasts; the cymbals clashed, signaling the beginning of the Levitical chant. At the end of each portion the trumpets joined the singing to indicate to the congregation the moment when they were to prostrate themselves. Every song was probably divided into three portions. (Werner, 623)

Most scholars agree that music in the temple was almost completely professional and sacerdotal (performed by priests). The Jewish people participated principally as listeners. It is reasoned that they may have frequently joined in the traditional responses “amen” and “alleluia,” and possibly in an antiphonal refrain like “for his steadfast loves endures for ever” (Ps. 136).

The book of Psalms has been called the “hymnal of Israel.” The Psalms were sung in regular sequences following the morning and evening sacrifice on specified days of the week and were accompanied by instruments that occasionally indulged in an interlude indicated by the word Selah.

Psalms offered specific types of worship expression:

  • Praise: For it is good to sing praises to our God; for he is gracious, and a song of praise is seemly (Ps. 147:1).
  • Petition: Give ear, O Shepherd of Israel, thou who leadest Joseph like a flock! Thou who art enthroned upon the cherubim, shine forth before Ephraim and Benjamin and Manasseh! Stir up thy might, and come to save us! (Ps. 80:1–2).
  • Thanksgiving: I love the Lord, because he has heard my voice and my supplications (Ps. 116:1).

There were special psalms associated with festival occasions—royal psalms to honor the kings (e.g., 21, 45, 101), processional psalms (e.g., 24, 95, 100), and penitential psalms for periods of national repentance (e.g., 130). The “Egyptian Kings” Psalms (113–118) were very significant in the observance of the Passover and other times of national penitence.

There were at least four different modes of presentation:

1. A simple psalm (e.g., 46:1), sung by one person alone.
2. A responsive psalm (e.g., 67:1, 2), in which a choir answers the solo chant.
3. An antiphonal psalm, with several lines beginning or ending with the same phrase (e.g., 103:1, 2, 20–22), sung by two choirs in alternation.
4. A litany (e.g., 80:2, 3, 6, 7, 18, 19), which included a repeated refrain (Werner, 621–623).

Eric Werner also gives four design types: (Eric Werner, The Sacred Bridge, p. 133.)

1. The plain, direct psalm—no strophic arrangement.
2. The acrostic psalm—phrases in alphabetical sequence (e.g., 119).
3. The refrain psalm—each verse ending with the same refrain (e.g., 136).
4. The Hallelujah psalm—begins or closes with the ecstatic exclamation (e.g., 145–150).

In addition to the Psalms, a number of important biblical canticles were used regularly by the Hebrews in worship, and have been carried over into many Christian traditions as well. These are the best known:

1. Moses’ (and Miriam’s) song of victory over Pharaoh (Exod. 15).
2. Moses’ prayer before his death (Deut. 32).
3. The song of Hannah (1 Sam. 2), a prototype of Mary’s song in Luke 1:46–55.
4. The song of Habakkuk (Hab. 2).
5. Isaiah’s song (Isa. 26).
6. The prayer of Jonah in the fish’s belly (Jonah 2).
7. The prayer of Azariah—Benedictus es, Domine (Daniel 3, Douay version; Vulg., 3:26–49, Apocrypha).
8. The song of the three Hebrew children in the furnace—Benedicite omnia opera Domini (Dan. 3, Douay version; Vulg. 3:52–90, Apocrypha).

Worship and the Calendar

Historic Jewish worship acknowledged that God is the Lord of times and seasons in the ebb and flow of life. The sacrifices were observed in both the morning and evening every day in the tabernacle and later, in the temple. In addition, the Jewish family regularly offered prayers at home at stated hours and at mealtime. The Sabbath was a time for more exacting expressions of worship; it commemorated God’s rest from the acts of creation and was observed in obedience to his command. Finally, there were times of intensely celebrative or penitential worship: Passover, to commemorate their deliverance from Egypt; the Day of Atonement, at the beginning of the New Year; Pentecost, associated with the giving of the Law, at the corn harvest; and the Feast of Booths (tabernacles) as “harvest home.” As we will see later, most of these practices based on the calendar have been fulfilled in Christ and transformed into Christian worship.

Worship Music and the Experience of God

The Hebrews shared richly symbolic worship that appealed strongly to the senses. The music which accompanied the sacrifices was a conspicuous part of the sensory experience. Musical sound revealed the presence of God, as evidenced in the accounts of the ecstatic moments of Saul and Elisha, and also in the requirement that song-chant would always be the vehicle of the holy scriptures.

One occasion when God was pleased to reveal his presence through musical performance was the dedication of Solomon’s temple: Now when the priests came out of the holy place (for all the priests who were present had sacrificed themselves, without regard to their divisions; and all the Levitical singers, Asaph, Heman, and Jeduthun, their sons and kinsmen, arrayed in fine linen, with cymbals, harps, and lyres, stood east of the altar with a hundred and twenty priests who were trumpeters; and it was the duty of the trumpeters and singers to make themselves heard in unison in praise and thanksgiving to the Lord), and when the song was raised, with trumpets and cymbals and other musical instruments, in praise to the Lord, “For he is good, for his steadfast love endures for ever,” the house, the house of the Lord, was filled with a cloud, so that the priests could not stand to minister because of the cloud; for the glory of the Lord filled the house of God (2 Chron. 5:11–14).

Worship in the Synagogue and the Jewish Home

The tradition of synagogue worship is of uncertain origin. Some scholars surmise that Jewish laypersons gathered in remote parts of Palestine at the time of the regular sacrifices in the temple at Jerusalem; others guess that the practice may have begun among Jews who were captives in other lands. Because the traditional sacrifices could only be offered in the temple, “sacrifices of praise and prayer” were substituted for offerings of animals and grain. Synagogue worship was in full flower during the lifetime of Jesus and the early days of the Christian church. It is not surprising then that early Jewish Christians modeled their worship partly on what they had experienced in the synagogue.

Synagogue worship was essentially a Service of the Word; it centered on the ceremonial reading of the Scripture, especially the Torah and the prophets, followed by an explanation of their meaning in a homily. It should be understood that the synagogue service was essentially congregational; though the position of the rabbi (teacher) developed in its context, it was essentially a meeting of laypersons, who probably participated in the prayers, and also in the free discussion which might follow the Scripture lection (see Acts 17:17).

These then are the component parts of synagogue worship, most of which have come down to us from the earliest traditions.

  • Scripture Readings (Torah; the Prophets)
  • Homily, followed by discussion
  • Psalmody
  • The Kedusha, “Holy, Holy, Holy,” (Isa. 6:3)
  • Prayers (The Yotzer and the Ahabah, emphasizing the creative acts of God and his love for his people, ending with the Shema—“Hear, O Israel; the Lord our God is one Lord,” etc., a declaration of faith and a glad benediction, from Deut. 6:4–9, 11:13–21; Numbers 15:37–41)
  • The Eighteen Benedictions (expressions of praise, petitions for material and spiritual blessings, and intercessions for many people, concluded with a united “amen”)

It is not known when music entered synagogue worship, but it is surmised that certain Levitical singers may have continued to practice their art in the lay-oriented gathering. We do know that only one or two solo singers (cantors) were involved in a service. They chanted the Scripture readings, the Psalms, the post-biblical prayers (Benedictions), and, according to some scholars, certain “melismatic” songs which may have been similar both to the ecstatic music of earlier days and to the “spiritual songs” mentioned in Colossians 3:16 and Ephesians 5:19. The musical style must have been related to that of temple worship, though presumably no instruments were involved since they were associated only with animal sacrifices. It is also surmised that, in the congregational character of this gathering, all the worshipers joined in the psalms which they knew, and very frequently in a repeated refrain, a “Hallelujah” and an “amen.”

We make this latter assumption partly on the witness of Mark (14:26): “And when they had sung a hymn, they went out to the Mount of Olives.” On the occasion of the last supper of our Lord with his disciples, the hymn sung was possibly one of the “Egyptian Kings” Psalms (113–118), traditionally used in the observance of Passover. In the custom of a typical Jewish home, Jesus pronounced a blessing over a loaf of bread, broke it, and gave portions to all those around the table. Similarly, at the end of the meal, a Jewish host would take a cup of wine mixed with water, give thanks, and then pass it around for all to drink. So it was that at the Upper Room supper, Jesus transformed this traditional act of thanksgiving and made it new, instituting the Lord’s Supper, or Eucharist, which many Christians believe to be the most significant single act of worship. The full order of historic Christian liturgy was developed by uniting the pattern of Jewish synagogue worship with the Eucharist.

Modern Jewish services continue in synagogues, without significant change in the basic elements. (In the orthodox Jewish tradition, the singing is still largely cantoral and unaccompanied.) The feasts are still observed as in ancient times, with one significant addition: Hanukkah, “the festival of lights,” is celebrated in December to commemorate the rededication of the temple in the second-century b.c., following the victory over the Syrians under Antiochus IV. In connection with the cycle of annual worship centering in the festivals, a regular schedule of Scripture readings (the lectionary), psalms, and prayers was developed to support the emphasis of each season. (The close relationship between Jewish and early Christian activity in the developing of “propers” for daily worship is related in Werner, 50–101.)

The Bƒrakhah or Blessing

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The bƒrakhah, blessing or benediction, is the chief form of prayer in Jewish worship. The New Testament provides numerous examples of the use of this form of prayer by Jesus and the apostles.

The bƒrakhah (translated in the Christian Scriptures aseucharistia [thanksgiving] or eulogia [blessing] and in the Latin Bible as benedictio [blessing] or gratiarum actio [thanksgiving]) was and is the chief form of prayer in Jewish liturgy and spirituality. It is the chief form of prayer because it determines the meaning and context of all prayer, as well as the dynamic movement and horizon of all liturgy and all the feasts. The bƒrakhah consists in an attitude and formula of wonder, praise, thanksgiving, and acknowledgment of the unmerited divine benevolence that provides for God’s children and gladdens them with the fruits of the earth and every kind of blessing. In the course of time the mark of the bƒrakhah came to be the set, standardized words with which every prayer began and ended: “Blessed be you, Lord, our God.” At times, the passive form (“Blessed be you … ”) might be replaced by the active form: “I bless you.… ”

The New Testament tells us of many bƒrakhot, some explicit, others—the majority—implicit. Among the best known is the one in which Jesus thanks the Father for having chosen “babes” as the recipients of his revelation:

I praise you, Father, Lord of heaven and earth, because you have hidden these things from the wise and learned, and revealed them to little children. Yes, Father, for this was your good pleasure. All things have been committed to me by my Father. No one knows the Son except the Father, and no one knows the Father except the Son and those to whom the Son chooses to reveal him. (Matt. 11:25–27; cf. Luke 10:21–22)

The most famous of the implicit bƒrakhot is the one to which all the synoptic evangelists refer in the account of “the institution of the Eucharist”:

While they were eating, Jesus took bread, gave thanks and broke it, and gave it to his disciples, saying, “Take it; this is my body.” Then he took the cup, and gave thanks, and offered it to them, and they all drank from it. “This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many,” he said to them. (Mark 14:22–24)

Another testimony to Jesus’ use of the bƒrakhah form is in Mark 6:41, where the influence of the Eucharist is undeniable: “Taking the five loaves and the two fish and looking up to heaven, he gave thanks and broke the loaves … ” (a similar passage occurs again in Mark 8:6–7). Other references to blessings are in Mark 10:16, where Jesus took the children in his arms and “blessed them,” that is, said a bƒrakhah over them, and in John, where Jesus utters a bƒrakhah to the Father for the raising of Lazarus: “Jesus looked up and said, ‘Father, I thank you that you have heard me. I knew that you always hear me … ’ ” (John 11:41–42).

Other New Testament writings besides the Gospels present many other pieces of evidence. Colossians 3:17 serves as an example: “And whatever [pan] you do, whether in word or deed, do it all [panta] in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through him.” According to the rabbinical tradition, the devout Jew ought to recite over one hundred bƒrakhot daily. We cannot fail to see the same sensibility at work in Paul’s exhortation to “do everything” to the accompaniment of thanksgiving. In all things (panta), nothing excluded, Christians, like Jews, should utter a bƒrakhah. The only difference is that Christians are to do this “in the name of the Lord Jesus” or “through him,” that is, with the same intention and the same fullness of commitment he had.

Ephesians 5 is also meaningful: “Be filled with the Spirit. Speak to one another with psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. Sing and make music in your heart to the Lord, always giving thanks [eucharistountes pantote huper pantōn] to God the Father for everything, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ” (Eph. 5:18–20). Christians should offer bƒrakhot at all times (pantote) and for everything (huper pantōn).

The Pauline letters not only show the importance of the bƒrakhah; they also tell us the motives that give rise to it. These can be summed up under two headings: the existence of the new Christian communities and, above all, the event that is Jesus, now acknowledged and proclaimed as Messiah and Son of God. If Christians ought to utter a bƒrakhah in every situation and every event, then certainly this response is called for in face of the two main events of early Christianity: the multiplication of communities by the hundreds and the experience of the dead and risen Jesus (1 Cor. 1:4–9; Col. 1:3–5; Eph. 1:3–14).

Elements of Synagogue Worship

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Synagogue worship consisted of three main elements: praise, prayer, and instruction. The earliest Christians, who were Jews, would have been familiar with this pattern, which in Christian worship gave shape to what is called the service of the Word.

Jewish scholars have helped us form a picture of the essential pattern of synagogue worship, although it must be confessed that there are some debatable matters. For the period before the destruction of the temple in a.d. 70, the New Testament is a valuable source (especially Luke 4:15–21). Very few precise details are given in any contemporary document. The general picture, however, is tolerably clear. There are three main elements: praise, prayer, and instruction.

Praise

It is the note of corporate praise that opens the service, and this is in accord with the principle laid down in the Talmud: “Man should always first utter praises, and then pray.” The adoption of this procedure may underlie the order of 1 Corinthians 14:26, which suggests that, at the head of the list of Christian corporate worship at Corinth, “a hymn” of praise should be sung.

The “ruler” summons the “minister” (Luke 4:20) to invite someone from the congregation to commence the service with this “call to worship.” He begins with the cry “Bless ye the Lord, the One who is to be blessed,” and the people respond with the benediction “Blessed be the Lord … forever,” in the spirit of Nehemiah 9:5. At the outset, then, the worshipers are invited to think of God and to acknowledge his greatness and blessing.

Prayers

Prayers in Jewish worship fall into two types. The first group comprises two lovely utterances: the Yotzer, which means “He who forms,” takes up the theme of God as Creator of all things, and the ’Ah‡vah, which means “love,” is concerned both to recall God’s love for his people and to pledge their obligation to love him in return. It ends, “Blessed art thou, O Lord, who has chosen thy people Israel in love.” Immediately following these prayers comes the Shƒma‘, which is both a confession of faith and a glad benediction. The title for the Shƒma‘ derives from its opening word. (“Hear” in Deut. 6:4; “Hear, O Israel: the Lord our God, the Lord is one.”) As soon as the congregation comes to the word one—for the Shƒma‘ is recited antiphonally—the leader adds the glad ejaculation “Blessed be the name of the glory of his kingdom forever and ever.” The term one, emphasizing the unity of God, has always been the central Jewish confession. It is given, therefore, a special prominence in the liturgy. The great Rabbi Akiba (c. 50–132), influential in the formation of Jewish rabbinic tradition, died with this Hebrew word for “one” (’eḥad) upon his lips. In its full form, the Shƒma‘ consists of Deuteronomy 6:4–9, 11:13–21, and Numbers 15:37–41.

The second division of united prayer comes next. The way for this division is prepared by the reciting of the prayer known as “true and firm” (“is this the word—the Shƒma‘—to us forever”), with its reminder that God’s promises are sure and dependable to his people. At this point, the “minister” summons a member of the assembly to lead in the “prayer proper,” that is, the “Eighteen Benedictions,” or blessings. The man so appointed steps forward in front of the ark and, with his face turned toward the ark, leads the united intercessions of the company, who reply with “Amen.” These “Eighteen Blessings” cover a wide range of themes. They are partly an expression of praise, partly petitions for spiritual and material benefits, and partly supplication for those in need (exiles, judges and counselors, and the chosen people). We may catch the tone of these prayers by considering the last one: “Grant peace upon Israel thy people and upon thy city, and upon thy inheritance, and bless us all together [literally, “as one”]. Blessed art thou O Lord, the maker of peace.” It seems permissible to believe that these precise words were on the lips of Jesus as he entered the synagogue, according to his custom, for worship in his day.

Instruction

Once the prayers were said, the service assumed a form that has given the synagogue its distinctive ethos. Indeed, the Jews themselves called it “the house of instruction,” for there is nothing more in keeping with Jewish worship than the emphasis placed on Scripture reading and exposition. The instruction was given by these two means. First, the Law and the Prophets were read by members of the congregation, who came up and shared the task (according to the length of the portions involved). As the ancient Bible language of Hebrew was not understood by all present, someone would translate the Scripture lessons into the vernacular, usually Aramaic. Then the homily, or address, based on the passages read, was delivered by a person in the assembly who was considered suitable. This person was invited to deliver the “sermon”—as proved the case both at Nazareth (Luke 4:14–30) and at Antioch (Acts 13:14–42). The service concluded with a blessing and the congregational “Amen.”

There were modifications of this basic pattern, depending on the season of the year and the day of the week. (Market days, Monday and Thursday, had shorter Scripture lections!) But the ingredients that provide the staple diet of synagogue worship—praise, prayer, and instruction—are found in every case.

These same elements are discovered in the New Testament patterns of worship, along with some distinctively Christian innovations. The evidence supports the thesis that Christian worship, as a distinctive, indigenous practice, arose from the fusion, in the crucible of Christian experience, of the synagogue and the upper room.

Elements of New Testament Worship

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Though the New Testament does not give any detailed information on the structure of the first Christian services, it leaves little room for doubt concerning the basic elements of primitive worship: prayer, praise, confession of sin, confession of faith, Scripture reading and preaching, the Lord’s Supper, and the collection. Early descriptions of Christian worship, such as that in Justin’s Apology, reveal a close similarity to the practice of the synagogue. Even without the synagogue model, however, the fundamental elements would surely have found a place, and distinctive Christian features would have their own origin.

Prayer

Prayer, in the more specific sense of petition, is a constituent element of worship. The first duty of the church between the Ascension and the outpouring of the Spirit was to wait in prayerful expectancy. Persecution quickly forced the Jerusalem church to its knees in common prayer. The needs of Christians, the needs of apostles, and the needs of the world all provided constant material for intercession. Common concern produced common petition. One cannot say exactly how the church prayed. Perhaps a leader prayed for the whole, perhaps individuals prayed in course, perhaps there was the recitation of a form or forms of prayer. Rather surprisingly, there is no immediate reference to a congregational use of the Lord’s Prayer; its use in the Didachē, or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (an early Christian manual) is an individual usage (see Chapter 8). The Amen, having acquired a new and even deeper meaning from its use by Jesus (cf. 2 Cor. 1:20), occurs frequently in the New Testament and probably served as a congregational response, as in synagogue worship (cf. Justin, Apology I, 65–67). Stock phrases like maranatha might have been used also (1 Cor. 16:22; cf. Rev. 22:20; Didachē 10, 7); otherwise, it is difficult to see why they should be preserved in Aramaic. Blessings, whether from the Old Testament or in the new Christian form of 2 Corinthians 13:14 or Revelation 22:21, probably came into rapid use. The Epistles especially testify to the emergence of the distinctive vocabulary of Christian worship in the New Testament period. Whatever the forms, however, the essential element of prayer belongs to worship from the very outset, and a genuine Christian service without it is almost unthinkable.

Praise

Closely related to prayer is praise, the confession of God’s nature and works. Indeed, prayer in the form of thanksgiving is itself praise. Almost all the prayers recorded in the New Testament contain an element of doxology. They recall God’s acts and thus sound a note of assurance and triumph. Quite apart from prayer, however, the praise of God has its own place in New Testament worship. The infancy stories show how the life of Christ began with angelic and human canticles that ultimately served as new songs in the congregation. The cry of jubilation uttered by the Lord took quasi-hymnic form. Jesus and the disciples sang a hymn—probably the customary Hallel—at the Last Supper. Paul refers to a psalm at worship in Corinth and to hymns and spiritual songs in Ephesians 5:19. Scholars have discerned possible fragments of early Christian hymns in such passages as Philippians 2:5–11 and 1 Timothy 3:16. The hymns of Revelation show that songs are sung in heavenly as well as earthly worship, though some expositors think Revelation 4–5 might be based on the worship of the congregation. In the earliest period, the Psalter was probably the hymnbook of the church, but if the reference in Pliny’s letter to Trajan (Letters X, 96) is to Christological hymns, it seems that quite early new and more specifically Christian hymns found a place in the confession of praise.

Confession of Sin

The confession of sin is at the heart of worship, for as the worthiness of God is exalted, the unworthiness of man demands acknowledgment. The prayers and psalms of the Old Testament are full of the recognition of guilt, which obviously goes hand in hand with a plea for forgiveness and restitution, and with praise and thanks for the divine mercy and pardon. In the New Testament, the gospel is by its very nature a divine word to sinners. The baptism of John is a summons to repentance and conversion. Jesus takes up the same call, followed by his apostles, in the first preaching of Acts. Peter, confronted by Jesus, confesses that he is a sinful man (Luke 5:8). The prayer God hears in the temple is the penitent prayer of the publican rather than the self-congratulatory prayer of the Pharisee (Luke 18:9–14). In the church’s worship, the great occasion for the confession of sin is at baptism, when the old life of sin is renounced and the new life of faith and obedience is begun. In post-apostolic days the public confession of specific faults was required when the excommunicated sought readmittance. It may be seen from 1 John 1:8–10, however, that confession of sins to God, whether individually or in concert, played a continuing role in the life of believers. Paul, in his letters, refers again and again to the utter dependence of himself and all believers on the divine mercy. Thus, although there is no great evidence of specific prayers of confession in New Testament worship, this element must be presupposed as the basis of all prayer and praise. Prayer itself has to be in the name of Jesus since there is nothing in oneself or in one’s own name that could constitute a valid ground of either access or answer (cf. the role of Jesus as high priest and intercessor in Heb. 7).

Confession of Faith (Baptism)

In the Old Testament the Shƒma‘, though primarily a commandment, served also as a confession of faith: “The Lord our God is one Lord.” As such it had found its way into the worship of the synagogue. Though the Lord gave it added attention, it was not adopted by the early church. The main reason was not that this basic confession was abandoned but rather that there had now been added the distinctive Christian confession “Jesus is Lord.” The faith of the primitive church is faith in Jesus as Savior and God. Peter makes this primary affirmation in Matthew 16:16. It is seen again in Thomas’s confession (John 20:28). John’s gospel was written with a view to the lordship of Jesus (John 20:31). The work of the Spirit is to induce in Christians the affirmation that Jesus is Lord (1 Cor. 12:3). All tongues will finally confess this (Phil. 2:11). On this belief rests the full confession of the triune God (Matt. 28:19). This confession is specifically made in the church at baptism, which is done in the name of Jesus (Acts 2:38). The eunuch professes belief in the Lord (Acts 8:37). Cornelius is baptized in Jesus’ name (Acts 10:48). The Philippian jailer is baptized when he believes in the Lord and is saved (Acts 16:30–34). The evidence of the later church (Justin, Apology I, 61) is similar. The baptismal confession was often made in interrogatory form, and it was followed by baptism in the triune name (or triune immersion, as described in Didachē 7).

Whether there was also a specific confession of faith in ordinary worship is open to question; the New Testament offers no instance. Baptism itself, however, was also a normal part of the worship of the church. Taken over from John and continued and commanded by Jesus, it was required for admission to the church, and it included at its heart a confession of faith as well as repentance. Administered in various circumstances and with wide variations of wording, it retained its essential features through every change. The first service for the convert was of common concern to the whole congregation. Like the Lord’s Supper, it had a primary declarative aspect, for the ultimate baptismal confession is confession of the saving act of God in the death and resurrection of Christ. Nevertheless, it also provided an opportunity for the affirmation of faith, which was quickly seen to be a reaffirmation by existing believers. The later weekly confession is a fairly natural and not unbiblical development, which finds a regular place for this essential aspect of worship.

Reading of Scripture

Rather strangely, the New Testament does not refer to the reading of the Old Testament in the common worship of the church. Paul’s epistles are publicly read (1 Thess. 5:27), and this might have formed the beginning of the later New Testament readings (cf. Justin’s “Memoirs of the Apostles,” Apology I, 66). The traditional texts relating to the Lord’s Supper also seem to have been rehearsed (1 Cor. 11). In light of synagogue practice, the extensive use of the Old Testament in the New Testament, the later knowledge of the Old Testament displayed in the post-apostolic period, and the early patristic references to Old Testament reading, it is virtually impossible to suppose that the New Testament church did not include Old Testament readings in common worship. The fact that there were sermons (for example, Paul at Troas) supports this. A sermon in the synagogue was primarily exposition. Early Christian preaching was especially concerned with showing the fulfillment of the Old Testament in Christ. Furthermore, the mention of an interpretation seems to presuppose a reference to the Old Testament. The high estimation of Scripture (cf. 2 Tim. 3:15–17) is a further consideration. Great freedom was no doubt exercised—even the synagogue had, as yet, no prophetic lectionary. But the reading of God’s written Word, first in the Old Testament and then increasingly in the New Testament, was surely a constituent part of worship from the very first, as it patently was in both temple and synagogue, and then again in the church of the second century.

Preaching

In contrast to reading, preaching is solidly attested. Paul preached at Troas. The prophesyings at Corinth also seem to be forms of Christian exhortation. The needs of evangelism and education as well as edification made it essential that the ministry of the Word be included in the early services. The synagogue provided a partial parallel; the teaching of Jesus was an example. The apostles were specifically called to the ministry of the Word (Acts 6). At a later time bishops were to be apt teachers (1 Tim. 3:2). Preaching combined several aspects of “worship”: declaration of God’s work, confession of faith, underlying prayer, and the climax of praise. Early preaching was particularly related to the Old Testament on the one side and to the life and work of Christ (later the New Testament) on the other. While not restricted to formal exposition, it had a strong expository content, judging from the sermons in Acts. Among Gentile Christians in particular, a good deal of information would have to be passed on in preaching, for the same level of biblical knowledge could not always be assumed as among Jewish Christians or the early “god fearers.” Apollos, a man mighty in the Scriptures, exercised an important ministry in this field (Acts 18:24–28). Justin gives evidence of the secure position of preaching in the typical Christian service in the post-apostolic period.

The Lord’s Supper

If baptism was an addition to synagogue worship (though not without some parallel in proselyte baptism), this is even more true of the Lord’s Supper. Both biblical and patristic evidence supports the view that this was from the very first a constitutive part of weekly worship. Certainly, in Justin’s time, there is no disjunction between the ministry of word and ministry of the sacrament, and the examples of Troas and Corinth suggest that, with variations of time and structure, the same applies in the New Testament period as well. The one gathering embraces not only prayer, praise, reading, and preaching, but also the holy meal, which was probably accompanied by blessings (cf. Didachē 9–10) after the manner of the Passover. The Lord’s Supper took the place, not only of the Passover but also of the temple offerings. This is why sacrificial language soon came to be used in respect to the Lord’s Supper (cf. Mal. 1:11). Yet it was not strictly a replacement: the Lord’s Supper shows forth the one sacrifice for sins forever. Christ as high priest has made a mediatorial and sacrificial ministry at the human level redundant. Hence the ministers of the Lord’s Supper, whether apostles, bishops, presbyters, or deacons, are truly ministers, not priests. The focal point is a declaration of the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ for mankind. This is the ground of the fellowship here enjoyed with God and with fellow believers. Ultimately, then, the Lord’s Supper, like all else, is Christological rather than, in the narrower Old Testament sense, liturgical. To describe it as quintessentially liturgical is misleading. It is also to hold in disregard its real place and significance within the church’s worship as a perpetual reminder that worship is possible only on the basis of the atonement that God himself has made by his self-offering in the Son.

The Collection

The reference to a weekly allocation in 1 Corinthians 16, the liturgical significance ascribed to alms in Philippians 4:18, and mention of an offering in patristic writings have lead to the view that a collection formed a basic element in Christian worship. Difficulties to this conclusion include the following: Paul does not speak of a church collection; like the Philippian gift, the Jerusalem collection was probably a special project (though rapidly succeeded by extensive relief for the poor); and Tertullian refers only to a chest for spontaneous gifts (Apology I, 39, 1–6). Furthermore, some scholars argue that Justin’s offertory (Apology I, 65) is that of bread and wine for communion, though this was not an obvious part of the original institution. On the other side, one should consider that almsgiving had a long Old Testament history and that the importance of liberality as part of serving God is beyond dispute. Thus, if it is too much to say that the collection is a constitutive part of the service, there are grounds for its later inclusion. The kiss of peace falls into a similar category.

Occasional Services

It has often been noted that there are no marriage or funeral services in the New Testament. It should be remembered, however, that such services are only an application of the basic elements of worship—prayer, praise, reading, exposition, and the Lord’s Supper, where appropriate to specific situations. In fact, the New Testament mentions certain occasions—for example, confirming by the apostles, ordaining, and perhaps the anointing of the sick—when biblical signs (laying on of hands, anointing) was used along with other liturgical elements. This does not mean that there were developed special services for confirmation and other biblical signs. It shows that the basic elements can be rapidly adapted to particular needs, sometimes with a particular sign. The consecration of Paul and Barnabas to missionary service at Antioch offers an instructive example (Acts 13:2–3). Whether any given service can find a precedent in the New Testament, it offers the materials from which a genuinely biblical service may be constructed, and the injunction that all things are to be done in the Lord means that the introduction of elements of worship is never a misplaced or unwarranted intrusion.

Words for Expressions of Praise and Acclamation in the Old Testament

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Vocal expressions of praise abound in the Scripture; many of these terms apply to musical as well as spoken celebration. The biblical worshiper expresses praise to God aloud.

A verb frequently used is halal, in the intensive form hillel, meaning “praise” or “boast about” (1 Chron. 29:13; Pss. 44:8; 56:4; 84:4; 99:3; 111:1; 150:1–6). The expression “Hallelujah!” means “Praise the Lord!” and is a combination of hillel and a short form of the Lord’s personal name, Yahweh. The reflexive construction hithallel (Pss. 34:2; 105:3) means “to make one’s boast in the Lord.” The related noun tƒhillah, “praise,” also occurs (Pss. 33:1; 102:21) and, in the plural form, tƒhillim is the Hebrew name for the book of Psalms. An often-associated term is the verb yadah, in the causative form hodah, meaning “to confess allegiance to Yahweh,” but generally translated “give thanks” (Pss. 9:1; 67:3; 92:1; 100:4; 111:1; 136:1). Yadah also yields the noun todah, thanksgiving (1 Chron. 29:13; Pss. 95:2; 100:4). David appointed Asaph and his family specifically to celebrate by praising and giving thanks (hillel, hodah, 1 Chron. 16:4–7).

Equally common is the expression “bless [or praise] the Lord” (berekh, Neh. 9:5; Pss. 103:1; 104:1; 134:1–2); although this is the same word as “kneel” (see section 106), in most cases it no longer has that meaning, since God may also bless his people (Ps. 67:1). Another verb for praise is shibbaḥ (Pss. 63:6; 96:3; 145:4). The worshiper desires to “make high,” to extol or exalt the Lord (romem, Pss. 34:3; 99:9; 118:28; 145:1); the related noun (romƒmot, Ps. 149:6) indicates “high praises”; he or she seeks to glorify the Lord (kibbed, Ps. 22:23) and magnify him (giddel, Ps. 34:3). All are summoned to give or ascribe (yahav) to God greatness (Deut. 32:3) and glory (Ps. 29:1–2).

The vocal praise of Yahweh is characterized by abandon and even tumult. Often the invitation goes forth to raise a shout (rua‘, in the causative construction heri‡‘, Pss. 47:1; 66:1; 95:1–2; 100:1); the related noun (tƒru‘ah, Pss. 33:3; 47:5; 89:15) means a shout like a war cry. The worshipers may “make a ringing cry” (rinnen, Pss. 33:1; 71:23; 98:4–6; 145:7; noun rinnah, Pss. 30:4; 47:1); this term can indicate joyful shouting or singing and is sometimes combined with the verb patzaḥ (Ps. 98:4; Isa. 49:13), meaning “break out into joyful celebration.” In the Lord’s presence, his people must be joyful or glad (same‡ḥ, Pss. 9:2; 53:6; 97:12; 118:24; Joel 2:23). There is complete joy or gladness (simḥah) in serving him (Pss. 16:11; 100:2); indeed, he is the worshiper’s joy (Ps. 43:4). Therefore the Lord’s people exult (‘alatz, Ps. 68:3; ‘alaz, Pss. 96:12; 149:5; sis, Ps. 68:3) and rejoice (gil, see 106) before him.