Students of the Psalms have attempted to categorize them by content, literary type, and cultic usage. Though each of these methods has its value, an approach to the Psalms through the concept of the covenant correlates both the general theological stance of the Psalter and the variety exhibited by the individual psalms.
Classification by Content
A traditional method of classifying the Psalms has been by content or subject matter; this method has great appeal when the chief aim of the student is to apply biblical teaching to the support of Christian doctrine and the practice of personal faith. Psalms of praise speak of the character and attributes of God: his creative activity (Pss. 8; 33; 104), his eternity (Ps. 90), his infinity (Ps. 139), his dominion and judgment (Pss. 96–97), his holiness and justice (Ps. 99), his mercy (Ps. 103), his word of revelation of his precepts (Pss. 19; 119). Historicalpsalms rehearse the saving events of Israel’s sacred history (Pss. 78; 105; 136). Penitentialpsalms (Pss. 6; 32; 38; 51; 69; 102; 130) express the sinfulness of the worshiper before the Lord. Psalmsofimprecation, or cursing of enemies (Pss. 35; 69; 109; 137), have been something of an embarrassment to expositors; Wesley, for example, considered them unworthy of Christian usage. Messianic psalms, celebrating the Lord’s “anointed,” are seen as prophetic of Christ (Pss. 2; 22; 40; 89; 110; 132). Some interpreters have identified social psalms, dealing with the nature, ethical obligation, and destiny of humanity, but the examples of this kind overlap all the others. In focusing on the didactic content of the Psalms, it is easy to lose sight of their purpose, for the Psalms are not intended to be doctrinal expositions but to be acts of worship, facilitating the believer’s approach to the living God.
Classification by Literary Type
Classification by type focuses on the literary form or structure, rather than doctrinal content, of the Psalms. Hymns of praise (Pss. 29; 33; 65–67; 100; 103; 113; 117; 124; 136) begin with an invitation to praise the Lord, followed by the reasons for doing so. Sometimes the invitation becomes a complete psalm (Pss. 148; 150); in other instances, the hymn specifically celebrates Yahweh’s role as Creator (Pss. 8; 104; 148) or as King and Judge (Pss. 47; 96; 98–99) or exalts his law (Pss. 19; 119). The hymn of praise may take an individual form, in which the worshiper states his intention to praise the Lord and then testifies to what the Lord has done for him (Pss. 30; 34; 92; 116; 138). While the community hymn may be “descriptive praise” (Pss. 29; 113), extolling Yahweh’s enduring qualities, usually both corporate and individual hymns are “narrative praise” or “confessing praise,” recounting his acts of creation and redemption.
Psalms of lament also fall into both the community and individual categories. Thecommunitylament(Pss. 44; 74; 79–80; 83) begins with an introductory petition for the Lord to hear and deliver his people and may include a description of their distress (usually invasion by enemies) and a reminder of the Lord’s past deeds in behalf of his people and the acknowledgment of the Lord’s answer to prayer. The individual lament, the most numerous type in the Psalter (about fifty examples, including Pss. 9–10; 13; 22–23; 27; 31; 36; 42–43; 55; 57; 63; 69; 73; 86; 109; 130), has a similar format: the worshiper’s address to the Lord; complaint concerning some distress (usually illness or oppression by the wicked); petition for relief; acknowledgment of the Lord’s answer and a promise to bring him praise. However, these psalms may have different emphases. In some, trust and confidence predominate (Pss. 23; 27). Others offer the worshiper’s confession of sin, removing barriers to the Lord’s answer to prayer (Pss. 32; 38; 51; 130). Some (the “psalms of imprecation”) stress the condemnation of the psalmist’s oppressors (see Claus Westermann, The Psalms: Structure, Content, and Message [Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1980]).
In addition, the Psalter includes alphabetical or acrostic psalms (Pss. 34; 111–112; 119; 145), wisdom poems similar to material in Proverbs (Pss. 37; 127), and liturgies (Pss. 24; 68; 118), or psalms that appear to combine song with visible actions of worship. These categories represent clearly distinguishable psalmic forms and are useful when studying the book of Psalms from a literary standpoint.
Classification by Cultic Usage
Like the chants, hymns, anthems, Scripture songs, and choruses of Christian worship, the Psalms must have been used on specific occasions in the liturgy of the Israelite sanctuary. The literary form of the Psalms, and the ideas they express, may suggest the kinds of occasions on which they were sung. The chief exponent of this approach has been the Norwegian scholar Sigmund Mowinckel (The Psalms in Israel’s Worship, 2 vols. [New York: Abingdon Press, 1962]). In general, Mowinckel’s scheme corresponds to the categories as defined by literary type, but he associates them with specific observances and rites, both joyful festivals and times of penitence.
Mowinckel views the individual psalms of lament as appropriate for various cultic acts mandated in the ritual laws of the Pentateuch, such as offerings to atone for unintentional sin (Lev. 4) or ceremonies that certify the cleansing of leprosy (Lev. 14). Recovery from illness, in general, warranted a visit to the sanctuary, and Mowinckel suggests that the “enemies” in these psalms of lament are people who had caused the speaker’s illness through the practice of sorcery. The communal laments would have been used on days of penitence or fasting, which were proclaimed in response to national disasters such as defeat in warfare, epidemics, drought, or famine. Hymns of narrative praise would be suitable for public acts of thanksgiving after victory in battle or following a bountiful harvest (Pss. 65; 67) or for the individual’s presentation of an offering vowed as an act of thanksgiving for benefits received (Lev. 7:11–18). There are psalms exalting Zion as the sanctuary of God (Pss. 48; 84; 87; 122), perhaps used by pilgrims to the annual festivals. Other categories include special psalms for the king’s accession to the throne (Pss. 2; 72; 110) and for an annual festival celebrating Yahweh’s enthronement as King (Pss. 47; 93; 95–99), including the procession of the ark to Zion (Pss. 24; 68; 132).
Although not all his suggestions have gained wide acceptance, Mowinckel’s views have exerted considerable influence on subsequent attempts to categorize the Psalms. One difficulty with classification by usage in the various cultic observances of Israel is that it is largely conjectural and may involve circular reasoning. By linking many psalms to a hypothetical annual festival of the enthronement of Yahweh, for instance, the exegete may develop a full picture of this festival, which in turn governs the interpretation of the Psalms. Moreover, the content of a psalm may not always be a clue to its cultic usage. Conventional texts are sometimes associated with particular festivals by tradition, rather than by internal features. There is no particular reason why Isaac Watts’s hymn “Joy to the World” should be used only during Advent and Christmas (it is actually a paraphrase of Psalm 98). The superscription of Psalm 30 refers to it as a song for the dedication of the temple, although nothing in the psalm would suggest this application. Finally, when biblical worship, in all its aspects, is understood as the renewal and celebration of the covenant between the Lord and his people, there is less need to relate the different types of psalms to specific acts and festivals; they may also be seen as expressions of the various elements of covenant structure.
Classification by Covenant Structure
The structure of the Lord’s covenant with Israel has been compared to that of the ancient treaty between an overlord and his vassal king. In these agreements, the overlord, or “great king,” grants a territory to a client king, his vassal or “servant,” with a promise of protection. In return, the servant king pledges his loyalty to the overlord, to the exclusion of other allegiances, and agrees to pay tribute as required. In form, the treaty may include a historical prologue, or statement of the previous relationship, in which the overlord reminds the vassal of what he has done for him; the stipulations or “words” of the agreement, the servant king’s obligations to the great king; an act of ratification of the pact; a pronouncement of the benefits to the vassal if he maintains the terms of the treaty; and a declaration of the sanctions, or punishments, that will follow if the client violates the agreement.
This treaty structure is evident in the covenant of Mount Sinai and in its renewal in Moses’ final address in Deuteronomy, where Yahweh is in the place of the “great King” and all Israel is the vassal or servant. It is also evident in the prophetic books, where the prophets, as spokespersons for the covenant, often indict the community for its failure to keep the agreement and articulate the enactment of the sanctions or judgments. But the same covenant structure underlies the Psalms, where the speaker stands in the place of the servant king, representing the faithful congregation. Although all aspects of the covenant pattern are represented in the Psalms, the definitive features are the servant’s vow of allegiance to the overlord and an appeal to the Great King to honor the treaty he has granted by delivering the servant from their mutual enemies.
When the background of treaty-covenant structure is borne in mind as the foundation for Israel’s worship in the sanctuary of Yahweh, many recurrent features of the Psalms fall into place, and the specialized Psalm categories are seen to reflect the different movements of covenant enactment. The enthronement psalms set the stage in their portrayal of Yahweh as the Great King. Psalms that rehearse the course of redemptive history (Pss. 78; 105–106; 135–136), along with the psalms of confessional praise, reflect the historical prologue of the treaty-covenant and are recited as acts of covenant reaffirmation. Psalms in praise of the law of the Lord reflect the congregation’s renewed submission to the stipulations of the covenant. The psalms of praise and the worshiper’s vow of praise in the psalms of lament are part of the fulfillment of Israel’s obligation of tribute to the Great King (M. G. Kline, The Structure of Biblical Authority [Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1972], p. 63). The speaker’s repeated pledge of loyalty in the psalms of lament is an act of covenant ratification, and the picture he draws of his enemies shows that he will have nothing to do with authorities who oppose his covenant overlord. His prayer for vindication and salvation is based on the Great King’s guarantee of protection, which from his perspective is the whole purpose and benefit of the covenant. The invective against the ungodly in the psalms of imprecation invokes the covenant sanction of a curse upon the apostate; in contrast, the worshiper (or a sanctuary prophet) often recites the blessings and benefits he has received, not so much in virtue of his obedience to the agreement, but through Yahweh’s faithfulness.
In essence, there are only two basic categories of psalms: psalms of petition and psalms of celebration. Both are based on the covenant. In the first category, the servant pledges his commitment to the Great King and appeals to him in turn to honor the agreement. In the second category, the worshiper (or the congregation) exalts the Lord as the Great King and declares his faithfulness or develops some aspect of the covenant ceremony.