Lord

Names of God the Son in the Bible

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Paul encouraged his readers to “do all in the name of the Lord Jesus” (Col. 3:17). The Christian performs all aspects of his or her ministry and witness in the name of Jesus, and it is in his name that the church assembles for prayer and worship (1 Cor. 5:4) and offers thanksgiving to the Father (Eph. 5:20). The New Testament uses several titles to describe the meaning of God’s action through his Son. Many of these expressions (such as “Son of Man,” “Servant,” and “Anointed”) are applied in the Old Testament to significant leaders of the covenant people—prophets, priests, kings. As applied in the New Testament to the Lord Jesus, they are titles for God the Son.

Jesus

Jesus’ name, which in Hebrew is Yeshu‡‘, is equivalent to Joshua, and means “Yahweh is salvation.” A messenger of the Lord revealed this name to Joseph (Matt. 1:21) and to Mary (Luke 1:31) before the birth of Jesus. It conveys the purpose for which he has come into the world: “for he will save his people from their sins.” The biblical concept of salvation is not an abstract idea but a concrete image of God’s action in behalf of his people. It means deliverance: the rescue of people from danger and from their enemies, and their release from that which enslaves and binds. Jesus’ ministry, culminating in his death on the cross and his resurrection and exaltation, was not only a deliverance from the condemnation of sin and disobedience to God; it was also a release of the people from the strictures of a religious tradition that had lost sight of its foundations in the covenant granted by the Lord. Jesus, the Deliverer, taught a new ethic of the kingdom of God that was not new at all but went to the heart of the Hebrew Scriptures, “the law and the prophets” (Matt. 5:17; 7:12).

The name Jesus, then, has special significance in its own right. But it takes on infinitely more meaning when equated with the many titles by which he is known in the worship and proclamation of his church. The church confesses that “Jesus is Lord” (1 Cor. 12:3), its authority and head in the covenant. The apostles preach that “God has made this Jesus, both Lord and Christ” (Acts 2:36). They write of Jesus who, though humanly speaking a descendent of David, “was declared with power to be the Son of God by his resurrection from the dead” (Rom. 1:4). The gospel writers tell his story to the end “that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God” (John 20:31).

Jesus of Nazareth

This phrase differs from “Jesus” in being the name by which Jesus was known to the general public; New Testament evidence does not indicate that it was used within the church. Jesus is addressed in this way by demons (Mark 1:24); a blind man is told by the crowd that Jesus of Nazareth was passing by (Mark 10:46–47), and the crowds at Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem describe him as “Jesus, the prophet from Nazareth in Galilee” (Matt. 21:11). After the crucifixion, two of Jesus’ disciples refer to him as Jesus of Nazareth in speaking to a stranger on the Emmaus road, not realizing that Jesus has been raised from death and is, indeed, their traveling companion (Luke 24:19). In the period immediately following the resurrection, the apostles heal in the name of Jesus of Nazareth (Acts 3:6) and so identify him in preaching to the crowds (Acts 10:38; cf. 26:9). At the discovery of the resurrection, the women were told, “You are looking for Jesus the Nazarene, who was crucified. He has risen! He is not here” (Mark 16:6). Perhaps the messenger’s words anticipate Paul’s statement that although we once regarded Christ from a human point of view, we do so no longer (2 Cor. 5:16).

Christ (Christos)

The word is the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew mashi‡ḥ, or Messiah, meaning “anointed” or literally “oiled.” In ancient Israel, olive oil was a staple of the economy and therefore a symbol of prosperity and blessing. Important leaders were commissioned by having special sanctifying oil poured over them. The high priest was anointed (Num. 35:25; cf. Ps. 133:2), and Elijah the prophet was told to anoint Elisha as his successor (1 Kings 19:16). Most importantly, the kings were anointed. Saul was so commissioned by Samuel the prophet (1 Sam. 10:1; 16:13) and David spoke of him as “the Lord’s anointed” (mƒshi‡ḥ Yahveh, 1 Sam. 24:10; 2 Sam. 1:14). David himself, anointed by Samuel while Saul was still reigning (1 Sam. 16:13), became the paradigm for the Mashi‡ḥ, and the concept of the enduring Davidic dynasty, first enunciated by Nathan (2 Sam. 7:12–16), was celebrated by prophets and psalmists. In theory, every descendant of David installed in Zion was a “David” and hence a “messiah.” As the ruler ascended the Judean throne, he might be proclaimed the adopted son of Yahweh through a decree (Ps. 2:7), the Lord’s vice-regent in the governing of his earthly dominion. Several of the prophets looked forward to the restoration of the ideal commonwealth symbolized by David’s rule (Isa. 9:1–7; Jer. 30:1–9; Amos 9:11).

Such exalted language applied to the Judean ruler forms the background for the messianic hope of Judaism at the time of the birth of Jesus. Although it is common to speak of the Jewish expectation of an ideal Davidic ruler who would restore the glory of Israel, delivering it from its foreign oppressors and governing it with justice, in truth there was great divergence in the eschatological expectancy of first-century Judaism, which was split into many sectarian movements. The scribes of the Dead Sea community, for example, wrote of two messiahs, the priestly “Messiah of Aaron” and the lay “Messiah of Israel,” due to these sectarians’ bad experience with the Maccabean rulers, who had united the priestly and kingly offices. It has been said that Jesus’ own unique contribution to the concept of messiahship, and that of his apostles, was to combine the office of Messiah with that of the “suffering Servant” prefigured in the prophecy of Isaiah. Recent research involving the Dead Sea Scrolls, however, suggests that this idea was present in sectarian Judaism of the time.

When the New Testament writers call Jesus the “Christ,” they make the claim that he is the fulfillment of Israel’s messianic expectations: the instrument of God for their restoration as his people and their ultimate deliverance. But the exact nature of this restoration and deliverance did not conform to any one program in the contemporaneous Jewish scene. The fact of Jesus’ messiahship preceded its interpretation; the crucifixion and resurrection verified that Jesus was the Anointed of the Lord (Acts 2:22–36; 10:34–43; 17:31), but what this meant was left largely for the apostles to develop under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. The central fact was that Jesus is the Christ, the Deliverer of the faithful; because of this, the title was attached to his name and became one with it, as “Jesus Christ” or “Christ Jesus.”

Head (Kephalē)

The word head conveys not only the ideas of authority and summation, but also the concept of source, as in the expression “fountainhead.” As “head of the body, the church” (Col. 1:18), Jesus is the Lord of his people and also the source of their life and growth (Eph. 4:16). Not only the church, but “all things” are summed up in Christ (Eph. 1:10). The apostolic proclamation is that, as head of the church, Christ is also “head over all things” (Eph. 1:22 nasb), the “head over every power and authority” (Col. 2:10). In this figure, Paul gives the church a powerful image of universal scope of Christ’s dominion.

Lord (Kurios)

The earliest Christian confession is, “Jesus is Lord” (1 Cor. 12:3). The title “Lord” (Kurios) was the term substituted for the divine name Yahveh in the Greek version of the Old Testament, used in many communities of the Jewish diaspora. It is the Greek equivalent of ’Adonai, with all the implications of this term for the understanding of covenant loyalty to the great King. The heart of the apostolic proclamation is that, in the resurrection from the dead, God has made Jesus “both Lord and Christ” (Acts 2:36). The title Kurios, when applied to Jesus, in effect equates him with God; the confession of Jesus’ lordship, therefore, was what set the earliest Christians apart from their traditional Jewish contemporaries, who could abide no human claim to equality with God (John 5:18). In this, of course, they were quite correct. But, as Paul insisted, Jesus also made no such claim, even as the preincarnate Christ (Phil. 2:6); the Father exalted him to lordship because of his obedience to the point of death on the cross (Phil. 2:8–9). As Lord, Jesus will receive the oath of covenant allegiance from people of all times and places (Phil. 2:9–11), “from every tribe and language and people and nation” (Rev. 5:9).

The Christian confession, “Jesus Christ is Lord,” means that for the believer and for the corporate church, Jesus is the sole authority in life. The Scriptures are the written authority, but the church receives them from the hand of the Lord and interprets them with a focus on God’s action in Christ by the quickening guidance of the Spirit of Christ. Although it is through faith that a person is brought into the family of God (Eph. 2:8–9), this faith is accompanied by confession of the lordship of the risen Jesus (Rom. 10:9–10). Nor is this a vocal confession only (though it must be that), but a confession made with the whole of one’s being in a life of obedience, as the New Testament makes clear throughout.

Son (Huios)

In classical Christian theology, the Son is the second person of the Trinity. In the Semitic languages of the Bible, the word son (Hebrew ben, Aramaic bar) has a wider meaning than in English. It indicates not only biological or genealogical descent, but also things belonging in a certain class or representing something. A Hebrew speaker expresses his age by using the term; if he is 30 years old, he says “I am a son of 30, ” that is, “I belong to the class of those who are 30 years old.” In this way we understand expressions such as “sons of thunder,” Jesus’ epithet for James and John (Mark 3:17), perhaps because of their combative attitude (Luke 9:51–56); “sons of iniquity,” (Hos. 10:9 nasb) describing a rebellious Israel; and “Son of Encouragement,” the literal sense of the name Barnabas (Acts 4:36). The meaning of Jesus’ sonship, as ascribed to him both by himself and by the New Testament authors, is clarified in relation to the various qualifiers that attach to the term Son.

Son of God (Huios tou Theou), Son of David (Huios tou Dauid). These titles of Jesus are interrelated, and also relate to the concept of the “Anointed.” It is the idea of the covenant that imparts to them theological importance. In ancient treaties, a more powerful king would establish a treaty or covenant with a lesser one, who agreed to its terms as the representative of his people. Great kings were sometimes called “fathers,” while their vassals were known as “sons.” The Davidic ruler, as the anointed king, was the representative of Israel or Judah in the covenant with Yahweh and is thus termed the “son” (Pss. 2:7, 12; 72:1; Isa. 9:6). As a symbol of this mediatorial role in the covenant, when kings ascended the throne they were presented with the “Testimony,” or Book of the Law, a statement of the covenant between the Lord and Israel (2 Kings 11:12). Although all the people of Israel were called “sons of God” (Exod. 4:22–23; Deut. 1:31; 8:5; Jer. 3:19; 31:9, 20; Hos. 11:1; Mal. 1:6; Ps. 80:15), the king was viewed as the son par excellence in his role as their representative. This mediatorial position was an inheritance from Moses, who also functioned as “king” and the one who maintained Israel’s covenant relationship with Yahweh.

David was the symbol of the ideal royal son, whose appearance would bring a restoration of the covenant and the salvation of the people of the Lord. In identifying Jesus as the Son of David (Matt. 1:1; 21:9, 15; 22:42; Mark 11:10; John 7:42; Rom. 1:3; and others), the New Testament writers assert that he is also the Son of God, the agent and mediator of divine deliverance. Indeed, God declares Jesus’ sonship before his birth (Luke 1:32–33), at his baptism (Mark 1:11), and on the Mount of Transfiguration (Matt. 17:5; Mark 9:7). At his crucifixion it is an awestruck centurion who says, “Surely he was the Son of God!” (Matt. 27:54b). In the gospel proclamation of the apostolic church, it is by his resurrection from the dead that Jesus is “declared with power to be the Son of God” (Rom. 1:4).

Son of Man (Huios tou anthrōpou). The phrase “Son of Man” (which some scholars translate as “the human being,” taking “son” in the sense of “representative”) is familiar from the prophecy of Ezekiel, whom the Lord repeatedly addresses in this way in imparting his visions. Its use in Daniel (Dan. 7:13–14) is more cosmic in scope, describing one who is to rule with “an everlasting dominion” granted by the Ancient of Days. It is at this more exalted level that the New Testament employs it as a title for Jesus Christ. As the Son of Man, Jesus is the representative of mankind, able to enter and maintain the covenant on behalf of all humanity. The title is not a reference to Jesus’ ordinary human nature but to the extraordinary nature of his authority. Jesus healed the paralytic by forgiving his sins so the disciples would understand that he had that authority (Matt. 9:6; Luke 5:24). He declared that as Son of Man he was Lord of the Sabbath (Matt. 12:8; Luke 6:5), the keeping of which was a sign of the covenant (Exod. 31:13). In his prophecy of the destruction to come, Jesus borrows Daniel’s imagery to speak of the coming of the Son of Man to judge the unfaithful and gather his elect from all over the earth (Mark 13:26–27).

The Son. John employs the expression “Son of God” somewhat differently from the other gospel writers, often using the unqualified title “the Son.” In his interpretation, Jesus is the Son of God because he is one with the Father and therefore equal to him (John 5:18). In this sense, Jesus is not only the servant king who enters into covenant with the Lord as representative of the nation, maintaining its requirements in the nation’s behalf. He is also one with the great King, and as such is the granter of the covenant who lays down its terms. In divine paradox, Jesus the Son becomes both sides of the relationship between God and the people of God; he is the covenant.

Savior (Sōtēr)

Luke records that Mary, the mother of Jesus, calls God her Savior (Luke 1:47). But at his birth, Jesus also assumes the title, as confirmed by the name given him by the angel (Luke 1:31; 2:11, 21). After the Resurrection, the apostles herald Jesus’ exaltation as Savior (Acts 5:31; 13:23). The New Testament church looks forward to the appearance of its Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ (Phil. 3:20; Titus 2:13), but at the same time recognizes that he has already appeared (2 Tim. 1:10), delivering his people from bondage to the evil one through the mighty victory effected by his death and resurrection (Col. 2:15).

Servant (‘Eved, Pais)

The word, as applied to Jesus, is not the usual word translated “servant” (doulos), which is often applied to Christian workers and means “slave” or “bond servant.” Rather, it is the word pais, usually translated “child.” In covenant terminology “servant” is another title given to a ruler who enters into covenant with the great King. It is a title not of servility but of authority, for the servant is his ruler’s representative. Thus the Old Testament calls leaders such as Moses (Num. 12:7–8; 1 Chron. 6:49; Neh. 10:29), David (Ps. 89:20; Ezek. 34:23–24), and Zerubbabel (Hag. 2:23) the servant (‘eved) of God. In the “servant songs” of Isaiah, the Lord’s servant is sometimes an individual (Isa. 42:1–4; 50:4–9; 52:13–53:12; 61:1–2), sometimes Jacob or Israel (Isa. 44:1–2, 21), sometimes both (Isa. 49:1–6). The New Testament portrays Jesus as the suffering servant described by Isaiah (Matt. 12:18); Jesus himself inferred this identification in the synagogue of Nazareth at the beginning of his ministry (Luke 4:21). Jesus’ designation as Yahweh’s servant reinforces his role as covenant mediator on behalf of his people; he is the Servant-King. Peter, in his second sermon recorded in Acts (3:26), applies the title Servant (Pais) to Christ, as the one sent by God to turn the descendants of Abraham back to him, and the apostles in a prayer for God’s protection refer to Jesus as God’s “holy Servant” (hagios Pais, Acts 4:27, 30).

The Word (Logos)

Christ is directly called the Word only in the writings of John (John 1:1, 14; “the Word of Life,” 1 John 1:1; “the Word of God,” Rev. 19:13). In Hebrew culture, one’s word is the extension of his person; it is the mechanism through which the “soul” or life force impacts others, so that in effect there is no distinction between one’s word and one’s being (Johannes Pedersen, Israel: Its Life and Culture, 2nd ed. [London: Oxford University Press, 1959], vol. 1–2, 166–168). Biblical theology builds on this idea; the word of the Lord extends the force of his being into all contexts. It is by his word that the Lord moves affairs of history, particularly the sacred history of his deeds of deliverance (cf. Ps. 107:20). In the saga of the Israelite kingdoms recounted in the books of Samuel and Kings, events occur according to the word of Yahweh through his prophets. In fact, the creation itself comes into being by the spoken word of God (Gen. 1:3; Ps. 33:6). Thus, in several passages of hymnlike or doxological character, the New Testament celebrates Christ as the Word through whom all things have been made and are sustained (John 1:3; Heb. 1:1–3; cf. also Col. 1:15–18, where the idea is present without use of the term logos).

But the concept of the word also has covenantal associations; in the Sinai covenant, Yahweh spoke “these words” of the Decalogue or Ten Commandments (Exod. 20:1). In the ancient treaty, the “word” was the text of the covenant, standing as a sanction against its violators. As the “Word of God,” Christ appears at the head of the armies of heaven, executing the judgments of the Almighty against the rebellious (Rev. 19:14–15).

These two functions of Jesus as the Word—creation and covenant—are really one. Jesus, the incarnate Word, brings people into the family of God (John 1:12); through the “washing with water through the word” (Eph. 5:26) he prepares a church to be presented to God. By the word of Christ (Rom. 10:17), men and women enter into the new covenant, which is the “new creation” (2 Cor. 5:17).

Immanuel

After telling of Joseph’s dream, in which an angel announces the coming birth of Jesus, Matthew’s gospel indicates that his appearance was to be a fulfillment of the prophecy of Isaiah: “A virgin will be with child and will give birth to a son, and will call him Immanuel” (Isa. 7:14). The Hebrew phrase ‘immanu-’El means “with us is God.” Isaiah used the imminent birth of a child as a sign for King Ahaz that the attacking enemies of Judah would soon cease to be a threat (Isa. 7:15–16); the expression occurs again in Isaiah 8:8. It is rooted in the very character of Yahweh, who had revealed his name to Moses (Exod. 3:13–15) as one known historically through his covenant with his people. As King, Yahweh often reassures Israel that he will be with them to protect and provide (for example, Josh. 1:9). Solomon’s benediction at the dedication of the temple expresses the concept well: “May the Lord our God be with us [‘immanu] as he was with our fathers; may he never leave us nor forsake us” (1 Kings 8:57).

Despite Matthew’s citation of the Isaiah passage, Jesus is never actually called Immanuel in the New Testament. The name, however, is a powerful expression of the doctrine of the incarnation, consistent with such New Testament declarations as John’s, that the Word, who is one with God (John 1:1), “became flesh and made his dwelling among us” (John 1:14), or Paul’s statement that “God was reconciling the world to himself in Christ” (2 Cor. 5:19). Further, Immanuel aptly sums up the Christian’s awareness of the presence of Christ with his church. Declaring his authority over all things, the risen Christ pledges his faithfulness to the covenant: “I am with you always, to the very end of the age” (Matt. 28:20). Jesus remains continuously with the church through the Spirit, “the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb” dwelling amid his people (Rev. 21:3; 22–23).

High Priest

The writer to the Hebrews consistently uses this title in reference to Jesus, calling him “the apostle and high priest whom we confess” (Heb. 3:1). The title “high priest” was a messianic one, having been applied to the Davidic ruler in Psalm 110:4, using Melchizedek, the priest-king of Salem, as the pattern (Gen. 14:18). The author uses this title as part of his demonstration of the superiority of the new covenant to the old. The Aaronic high priest of the old covenant, who was from the tribe of Levi, was subject to death. But Jesus is “a high priest forever, in the order of Melchizedek” (Heb. 6:20), whose priesthood came before the Mosaic priesthood, and who had received tithes from Abraham, the ancestor of the Israelite nation. The point is that Jesus came from the tribe of Judah, not Levi, and a change in priesthood means a change in the law (Heb. 7:12). Therefore a new covenant supersedes the old (Heb. 8:7, 13); God “sets aside the first to establish the second” (Heb. 10:9).

As the “great high priest” (Heb. 4:14), Jesus is the “mediator of a new covenant” through his own blood (Heb. 9:13–15), having offered the sacrifice of the heavenly sanctuary of which the earthly was only a copy (Heb. 9:23–24). Being the “great priest over the house of God” (Heb. 10:21), Jesus lives forever to make intercession for those who approach God through him (Heb. 7:25). Believers have come, not to Sinai but to Zion, the place of celebration, to a “heavenly Jerusalem,” which is not an ethereal and future reality but the worshiping church, “the general assembly [panēguris, ‘festal gathering’] and church [ekklēsia] of the first-born” (Heb. 12:22–23 nasb). The theme of the high priesthood of Christ is therefore an incentive for the church to reflect in its worship the high celebration of the new covenant.

Rabbi; Teacher (Didaskalos)

In the Gospels, people sometimes address Jesus by the title “Rabbi,” which means “great one,” in the sense of master or teacher. These are usually people who are not yet believers (Nicodemus, John 6:25; a blind man, Mark 10:51; the crowds, John 6:25). However, Nathanael the disciple confesses his faith with the words, “Rabbi, you are the Son of God; you are the King of Israel” (John 1:49). At the empty tomb, Mary cries, “Rabboni!” when she recognizes the risen Christ (John 20:16), using a more honorific form of the title. Jesus applies the title “Teacher” (Didaskalos) to himself, telling his disciples, “One is your Teacher, and you are all brothers” (Matt. 23:8 nasb).

King (Basileus), King of Kings (Basileus Basileōn)

Although the kingship of Jesus is implicit in his role as Lord and Christ, the title “King” is not often ascribed to him in Scripture. Jesus is acclaimed King by his disciples at his entry into Jerusalem, according to Luke’s account (Luke 19:38), and after Jesus’ arrest Pilate scornfully calls him King (John 18:37; 19:15, 19). The phrase “King of kings,” meaning “supreme king,” is more common in the church’s worship, as a title of the risen Christ. It is similar to the expression “Lord of lords,” with which it is paired in all occurrences in Scripture. The title does not appear in the Old Testament but is attributed to Jesus Christ alone as the manifest Sovereign (1 Tim. 6:15, in the form Basileus tōn basileuontōn), as the Lamb (Rev. 17:14), and as the rider on the white horse (Rev. 19:16). As King, Jesus reigns as coregent with the Father; in the Resurrection, God exalted Jesus to his right hand (Acts 2:32–36); the kingdoms of the world have become the kingdom “of our Lord and of his Christ, and he will reign for ever and ever” (Rev. 11:15).

Prince of Peace (Sar Shalom)

The church worships Jesus as the Prince of Peace, although the title does not occur in the New Testament. The expression is one of the titles ascribed to the Davidic king in the familiar oracle of Isaiah (Isa. 9:2–7), which may have been composed for the coronation of an actual Judean ruler but later took on a messianic significance. Peace in the Bible is more than the absence of strife; it is shalom, a positive state of wholeness, prosperity, and blessing, which is the benefit of the covenant. The Prince of Peace is the one whose dominion brings this quality of life. In the New Testament, the peace of the covenant is extended beyond Israel to all people; in Christ, both Jew and Gentile have been united. Thus, Paul states, “He himself is our peace” (Eph. 2:14), having broken the dividing wall between cultural groups.

Ruler (Arkhōn)

As a synonym for “King,” John the Revelator calls Jesus “the ruler of the kings of the earth” (Rev. 1:5).

Author, Originator (Archēgos)

This word has the meaning “ruler” but in the sense of one who begins or originates something. The apostolic preachers refer to Jesus as “the author of life” (Acts 3:15), for new life and forgiveness have been released in his resurrection (Acts 5:31).

Names of God the Father in the Bible

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Biblical worshipers reverenced the name of the Lord, but the terminology they used varied depending on the worshipers’ needs, preference, or customary usage within the community. Included here are some of the major names or titles applied to God the Father in worship.

God (’El)

’El was the original supreme god of the Semitic pantheon; the title is associated with the idea of strength or might. By the time the Israelite tribes settled in Canaan, the principal god was Ba’al (“husband” or “lord”), the divinity of popular worship, especially fertility rites. ’El had receded into the background, and his name had become a generic term for “god.” Hence the name ’El could be applied to Yahweh, usually in combination with a qualifier. The following are the major compound names with ’El found in the Scripture.

Almighty God (’El shaddai). Shaddai is sometimes used alone. It comes from a Hebrew word meaning “mountain” and carries the meaning of “mountain God,” as well as the sense of strength and majesty. The thought, though not the name, is suggested in Psalm 121:1. As a title for God, ’El shaddai is largely associated with the patriarchal period; it is used often in the book of Job, which is set in that period, and it is as ’El shaddai that God changes the names of both Abram (Gen. 17:5) and Jacob (Gen. 35:10–12), in reaffirming his promise of land and descendants.

God Most High (’El ‘elyon). The root is probably ‘alah which means “to go up.” The name seems to have been associated with Salem (Gen. 14:18–20), a pre-Israelite designation for Jerusalem, where the Israelite sanctuary would eventually be located, and quite possibly came into use in Israel through Jebusites who converted to the worship of Yahweh. In the Psalms, the name is usually associated with Zion, either as ’El ‘elyon or simply ‘Elyon (Pss. 46:4, 50:14; 91:1; 92:1).

Mighty God (’El gibbor). The term gibbor, which describes a military man or warrior (1 Chron. 27:6), is frequently applied to God (Isa. 9:6; 10:21; Hab. 1:12). Psalm 24:8 celebrates “The Lord strong and mighty, the Lord mighty in battle.”

Eternal God (’El ‘olam). In Beersheba, Abraham called on the name of Yahweh, the everlasting or “Eternal God” (Gen. 21:33). The word ‘olam refers to continuous existence or long duration, both past and future. Eternity is ascribed to God as the sustainer of the creation, and more significantly, as the guarantor of the stability and enduring quality of the covenant with his people; the expression “everlasting covenant” occurs a number of times in Scripture (bƒrit ‘olam, Gen. 9:16; Isa. 61:8; Jer. 50:5; Ezek. 37:26; Ps. 105:10; diathēkē aiōniou, Heb. 13:20). The “Song of Moses” (Deut. 32:40) presents a picture of the Lord taking a covenant oath, lifting his hand and swearing, “as I live forever [lƒ‘olam].” The phrase “eternal God” occurs also in Isaiah 40:28, using another Hebrew word for God (’Elohei ‘olam).

The Living God (’El ḥai, Theos zontos). The expression “living God” describes Yahweh as a God of energy, vitality, and wrath. The name is associated with the ark (Josh. 3:10) and, in the longer form ’Elohim ḥayyim, with the armies of Israel (1 Sam. 17:26, 36). The psalmists cry out for the presence of the living God in the sanctuary (’El ḥai, Pss. 42:2; 84:2). Moses refers to the living God speaking from the midst of the fire in the Sinai covenant, and Jeremiah speaks of the wrath of Yahweh, “the living God, the eternal King” (Jer. 10:10). These expressions (both ’Elohim ḥayyim) form the background for the warning of the author of Hebrews, “It is a dreadful thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (Theos zontos, Heb. 10:31; cf. Rev. 7:2). Peter confessed Jesus as the Christ, “Son of the living God” (Matt. 16:16). Perhaps in allusion to the presence of the living God with the hosts of Israel, the New Testament church is called “the church of the living God, the pillar and foundation of the truth” (1 Tim. 3:15) and “Mount Zion … the city of the living God” (Heb. 12:22).

The Mighty One, God Yahweh (‘El ‘Elohim Yahveh). This expression occurs in Psalm 50:1; similar expressions are “great and mighty God” (’El haggadol haggibbor, Jer. 32:18) and “the God great and mighty and awesome” (Ha’El haggadol haggibbor vƒhannora’, Deut. 10:17; Neh. 9:32). These phrases are examples of the tendency of Semitic worshipers to pile up expressions in an attempt to convey the overpowering majesty of the Lord. The word awesome in Hebrew is nora’, literally, “to be feared.” It communicates the worshiper’s response of trembling or awe in the presence of the might and mystery of the Holy One; it is derived from the root y-r-’, the base for Hebrew words having to do with reverence and respect for God. Hebrew has no word for religion but conveys the idea through expressions such as “the fear of Yahweh” (Prov. 1:7; 9:10).

Deity (’Elohim)

Far more common than ’El, as applied to Yahweh, is the term ’Elohim, the plural of ’Eloah, “god.” The singular form is not found in the Hebrew Scriptures. In the New Testament, Theos translates both ’El and ’Elohim as a general term for God; usually it is preceded by the definite article, literally “the God.”

God. ’Elohim is the common Hebrew title for any divinity; since, for Israel, Yahweh is the only relevant divinity, he is called ’Elohim by his people, frequently with no qualifiers. In Scripture, the word ’Elohim can refer to pagan gods (Josh. 24:2; Ps. 96:4–5), to angelic beings (Ps. 8:5), or even to prominent or powerful people such as judges or princes (Ps. 82:6). As applied to Yahveh, the plural ’Elohim always takes a singular verb or modifier. Use of the plural conveys the idea of importance or majesty, a common practice in Semitic languages. It does not have implications for the doctrine of the Trinity, as is sometimes suggested. In a group of the Psalms found in Books II and III, ’Elohim appears to have been substituted by scribes for an original Yahveh; scholars occasionally refer to this part of the Psalms as the “Elohistic Psalter.”

God of Jacob (’Elohei Ya‘‡qov); God of Israel (’Elohei Yisra’el). Since Jacob and Israel are the same, these titles are equivalent. (Examples of the first are Isa. 2:3; Pss. 46:7; 81:1, 4; the second, which is more common, occurs in Exod. 24:10; Josh. 22:24; Isa. 45:3; Ruth 2:12; 1 Chron. 4:10; Theos Israēl, Matt. 15:31). Yahweh is the God who belongs specifically to Jacob, or Israel, by virtue of the covenant established at Mount Sinai. In pagan thought, gods ruled specific localities; thus Israel, when in Egypt, could have been expected to transfer its allegiance from the God who had met Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in Canaan, to the gods of Goshen, where they were residing. At Sinai, however, they entered into covenant with one particular God whose name was Yahweh, in this case using the Hebrew construct form ’Elohei or “God of” Jacob.

Lord (’Adon); My Lordship (’Adonai)

’Adonai is the plural form with the pronominal suffix. These are covenant titles for Yahweh; the plural form denotes majesty or increased status. Under ancient treaty structure the great king who entered into covenant with a lesser monarch was known as the “lord,” while his vassal was the “servant.” Because Israel, unlike the pagan nations around it, had entered into covenant with its God, they knew Yahweh as “the Lord” and regarded themselves as his servants (2 Chron. 6:22–23).

Jewish worshipers used ’adon and ’‡donai as substitutes for the divine name Yahveh. The Hebrew alphabet does not have vowels, but in the early Christian centuries Jewish scholars known as Masoretes devised a system of vocalization, or “points,” to show the vowel pronunciations in the biblical text. Devout Jews considered the name Yahveh too sacred to be pronounced, so when reading the Scriptures in worship they substituted the word Lord. In the text, scribes inserted the vowel points for ’Adonai into the name Yahveh (written YHWH) as a reminder to the reader to use ’Adonai instead. Translators of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries did not understand this practice and sometimes combined the vowel sounds for ’Adonai with the consonants for Yahveh, creating the name “Jehovah,” which was unknown in ancient times. English versions usually substitute the term the Lord where the name Yahveh occurs in the Hebrew, often using capital letters to indicate the substitution (the Lord).

Yahweh (the Lord)

Yahveh (usually Yahweh in English texts) is the personal or covenant name of God. By this name the Lord introduced himself to Moses at the burning bush (Exod. 3:13–15). The biblical text relates it to the Hebrew verb “to be,” and translates it “I am.” Taken literally, the Lord’s statement to Moses was, ’ehyeh ’‡sher ’ehyeh, or “I will be who I will be.” The name Yahveh seems to express his dynamic character, as the God who is revealed through events in history. He identifies himself in terms of the patriarchs who worshiped him, “the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob” (Exod. 3:15). Although the narrative suggests that Yahweh was unknown to Israel at the time he first appeared to Moses, the name was not a new one; the Bible relates that people began to call on the name of Yahweh in the time of Enosh, a grandson of Adam (Gen. 4:26). The original form of the name may have been Yah, which appears by itself several times in the Old Testament (Ps. 68:4) and as the ending of the exclamation Hallelujah! (praise Yah!). Another form may have been Yahu, as in the Hebrew forms of many names such as Isaiah (Yƒsha‘yahu, “salvation of Yahu”), Jeremiah, Adonijah, Hilkiah, Hezekiah, Benaiah, and so on.

In Christian worship, the name of the Lord is sometimes combined with other terms that qualify his relationship to the worshiper. In the Bible, however, many of these are not actually names of Yahweh. They are often names given to places where he manifests himself in a special way to his people. The following is a discussion of the best-known phrases that belong in this category. (Because of its importance, the expression “Lord of hosts” is treated separately.)

The Lord Our Provider (Yahveh yir’eh). This expression, familiar in English as “Jehovah Jireh,” literally means “Yahweh will see,” in the sense of provide (just as we say, “I’ll see to it”). Abraham gave this name to the place where the Lord provided a ram as the substitute for the sacrifice of Isaac (Gen. 22:14).

The Lord My Banner (Yahveh nissi). The banner, nes, was actually a standard or ensign used to rally an army in battle. After Israel’s victory over the Amalekites, Moses built an altar and gave it this name (Exod. 17:15).

The Lord Your Healer (Yahveh rof’ekha). Following the Exodus from Egypt, the Israelites came to a place where the water was undrinkable. After providing sweet water for them, the Lord promised that if the people would obey him he would protect them from the diseases of Egypt as their healer (Exod. 15:26).

The Lord Our Righteousness (Yahveh tzidqenu). The prophet Jeremiah used this as a title, not for Yahweh, but for the ideal Davidic king who is to reign with justice (Jer. 23:6). In the New Testament the word righteousness (dikaiosunē) is applied to Jesus Christ, who fulfills this expectation (1 Cor. 1:30; cf. 2 Pet. 1:1; 1 John 2:1).

The Lord Is Peace (Yahveh shalom). Gideon gave this name to an altar he built after the messenger of the Lord had appeared to him and called him to lead the Israelites against their Midianite oppressors. Because Gideon had seen a manifestation of God, he was afraid he would be struck dead (Judg. 6:11–24). But the messenger reassured him, saying, “Peace! Do not be afraid” (v. 23). From the context, it is obvious that the Lord’s “peace” (shalom) is not the absence of war; Gideon was being summoned to begin a war. Rather, in the context of life under the condition of sin and conflict, “peace” in the Bible means wholeness, health, salvation, prosperity, blessing, success. The prophetic hope for the ultimate perfection of all things, however, envisions a peace that includes the cessation of war, conflict, and fear (Mic. 4:3; Isa. 2:4).

The Lord Is There (Yahveh shammah). Ezekiel, prophesying during the exile in Babylon, specified this name for the city where the sanctuary was to be restored (Ezek. 48:35). It is a wordplay on the name of Jerusalem in Hebrew (Yƒrushalayim). Strictly speaking, it is not a name for the Lord. However, Christians understand that the Lord God himself is the temple in the new Jerusalem, the worshiping church (Rev. 21:22), and in that sense it is a name for God.

Lord of Hosts

We may derive the meanings of the names of God from the ways Israel used them in worship. Yahveh, as his covenant name, is associated with the ark of the covenant and often appears in combination with the term tzƒva’ot, “armies,” as in “Lord of hosts” (Yahveh tzƒva’ot, 2 Sam. 7:26; Pss. 24:10; 84:1; Isa. 9:7), or “Lord of hosts” (’Adonai Yahveh tzƒva’ot, Jer. 32:18 nasb). (Host is an old English word meaning “army.”) These expressions are the battle names of the Lord; as Israel’s covenant Lord or King, Yahweh, symbolized by the ark, which was his throne and the place of his presence, led the nation into war (1 Sam. 4:1–11). The cry preserved in Numbers 10:35–36 and Psalm 132:8, “Arise, O Lord, and come to your resting place, you and the ark of your might,” expressed this idea. The concept appears also in Psalm 24:7–10 when the Lord enters the gates of the sanctuary, probably reflecting a procession led by the ark, and in Psalm 10:12, when the psalmist asks the Lord to avenge his people. The title “Lord of hosts” appears also in the New Testament, the Hebrew word for hosts being taken over in transliteration (Kurios sabaoth, Rom. 9:29; James 5:4).

Other Names for God

In addition to the proper name Yahveh and the titles “God,” “Deity,” and “Lord,” the Bible contains many other important names by which Yahweh’s people know him.

Holy One (Qadosh); Holy One of Israel (Qƒdosh Yisra’el). Yahweh is called “the Holy One” (Isa. 40:25; Hos. 11:9) or sometimes “the Holy One of Israel” (2 Kings 19:22; Ps. 89:18; Isa. 37:23) or ’Elohai Qƒdoshi, “my God, my Holy One” (Hab. 1:12). The root meaning of holiness is separation or being set apart; therefore the phrase “the Holy One of Israel” means “the God who is distinctively Israel’s.” By the same token, Israel is a people “holy to the Lord their God” (Deut. 7:6; 14:2, 21; 26:19; 28:9), set apart for him. The basic meaning of holiness, therefore, is not goodness, purity, or moral virtue, but the transcendent quality of being above and separated from the common or ordinary. The English words sacred and sacrosanct better convey the meaning. In worship, the concept of God as the Holy One is evident in such instances as the cry of the seraphim in Isaiah’s temple vision: qadosh qadosh qadosh ’Adonai Yahveh tzƒva’ot, “Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts” (Isa. 6:3 nasb).

Mighty One of Israel (’Avir Yisra’el). An example of this usage is Isaiah 1:24. A variant is “Mighty One of Jacob” (’Avir Ya‘‡qov, Isa. 49:26; 60:16; Ps. 132:2, 5). This is similar to ’Elohei Ya‘‡qov, with added stress on the superior power of Yahweh, who belonged to Jacob, or the nation of Israel.

King (Melekh). As the giver of the covenant, Yahweh stands in the position of King over his vassal subjects, the Creator of his people (Isa. 43:15). Although Israel and Judah had earthly kings, they could not rule with the same absolute authority enjoyed by kings of the surrounding peoples, because the ultimate kingship of the Israelite tribes was vested in the Lord. Kings in the ancient world were military leaders, and the ark of the covenant was the symbol of Yahweh’s role as king in battle, the Lord of the hosts or armies of Israel (Isa. 6:5; Jer. 46:18; Mal. 1:14), the King in the midst of his people to defend them (Zeph. 3:15). As Lord of hosts, Yahweh is the “King of glory,” who enters his sanctuary (Ps. 24:7–10) “enthroned upon the praises of Israel” (Ps. 22:3 nasb). The Psalms summon the people of God to rejoice with abandon before their King (Ps. 149:1–4), who is the great King or Lord of the covenant (Pss. 47:2; 95:3; Mal. 1:14; Matt. 5:35). The worship of the Lord in Zion is a celebration of his kingship, not only over Israel, but over the whole earth or land (Pss. 29; 47; 93; 95–99). Thus, even when Judah faced defeat and exile, God’s true worshipers could praise him as King over all nations (Jer. 10:10), and even Nebuchadnezzar, the ruler of Babylon, is said to have honored him as King of heaven (Dan. 4:37).

In the New Testament, God is rarely called King (Basileus, 1 Tim. 1:17; Rev. 15:3), perhaps because the many Caesars and client kings of the Roman world rendered the title ambiguous for Christian usage. However, the concept of God’s kingship underlies all that is involved in the other titles by which the church knew and worshiped him and is synonymous with the idea of the kingdom of God. The festive celebration of God’s kingship is being increasingly recovered in many parts of today’s church.

Judge (Shofet). The function of a “judge” in ancient Israel was not that of administering justice in the modern legal sense. Justice (mishpat) actually means the entire way of life that maintains the integrity of the covenant and binds the community together; another translation is “custom,” referring to the conventional pattern of behavior that allows a society to function. The Lord is the maintainer and guardian of the covenant he has granted: “God himself is judge” (Ps. 50:6). As King, Yahweh is the Judge, or special guardian, of the weakest members of the covenant community, the orphaned and the oppressed (Pss. 10:18; 82:1–4). Thus, the worshiper who believes his position within the covenant has been compromised by the actions of others often cries out for the Lord to “judge” or vindicate him (Pss. 26:1; 43:1; 54:1). As Creator, Yahweh is also “the Judge of all the earth” (Gen. 18:25), the “judge of all men” (Heb. 12:23), deciding between peoples and nations (Judg. 11:27; Ps. 96:13). The Davidic king judges his people as God’s vice-regent (Ps. 72:1–2), and thus the apostles proclaim Christ as the Judge of all people (Acts 10:42; 17:31) and the vindicator of his own (2 Tim. 4:8; Rev. 6:9–10).

Savior (Moshi‡‘). This title occurs in Psalm 106:21 and often in Isaiah (Isa. 43:3, 11; 45:15; 49:26). In biblical usage, a savior was a national leader who delivered his people from their enemies by victory on the battlefield. In covenant terminology, “savior” is another title for the great king who fights the battles of his vassal. Yahweh was the King who protected Israel and won its military victories. His basic and most important act of deliverance, however, was the great emancipation of Israel from slavery to Pharaoh in Egypt. Because the death and resurrection of Christ effected a new exodus, calling forth a renewed covenant community, the title “Savior” is ascribed also to Jesus in the New Testament.

Redeemer (Go’el). This title is derived from the Hebrew root ga’al, literally “act as kinsman, do the part of the next of kin.” Examples of its use are Isaiah 49:26 and Psalm 103:4. The go’el was the kinsman designated to protect the integrity of the family. It was he who took in a relative’s widow, pursued the slayer of a family member to avenge his death, and bought back land or property that had been alienated from the family. In the Old Testament Yahweh is the Redeemer of Israel from Egyptian bondage (Exod. 15:3), from exile (Isa. 43:1, 14; 44:22–23), from enemies (Isa. 41:14), and from the pit (Ps. 103:4). In the New Testament the title “Redeemer” is not used. However, Paul says that Christ has redeemed, or bought back (exagorazō, Gal. 3:13; 4:5) his people, and speaks of the redemption (apolutrōsis, Rom. 3:24) that is in Christ, a concept that applies to the purchase of freedom for a slave.

Father (’Av, Patēr, Abba). God is called “Father” in the Old Testament (’Av, Jer. 31:9; 1 Chron. 29:10; Mal. 1:6), but far more often in the New Testament, in which the title is frequently on the lips of Jesus (Patēr, Matt. 6:9; John 4:23; 5:17–18; 17:1) and in the preaching and writings of the apostles (Acts 2:33; Eph. 1:2; Phil. 2:11). Jesus often spoke of “my Father,” introducing a note of intimacy and intensity in the relationship between the Father and the Son. This intimacy was so characteristic of the kingdom of God, which Jesus proclaimed, that the Greek Gospels preserve the familiar Aramaic word Abba, which Jesus used (Mark 14:36), and Paul took it up even in a Greek-speaking church (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Abba is always paired with its Greek equivalent, Patēr; the double usage does not simply translate the term, but intensifies it. Abba, Patēr probably became a liturgical expression quite early, since it has covenant connotations. Ancient treaties sometimes refer to the great king who grants the covenant as “Father.” When Jesus and the New Testament writers use the phrase “Abba, Father” they recognize not only a familial relationship between God and the church, but a covenant relationship as well.

Husband (Ba‘al, ’Ish, Anēr). The Hebrew word ba‘al means “lord, owner, husband”; ’ish means “man, husband.” As a title for Yahweh, ba‘al is found in Israelite names from the period of the judges and the early kingdom (Jerubbaal, Judg. 7:1; Eshbaal, 1 Chron. 8:33; Meribaal, 1 Chron. 8:34). Because the title Ba‘al was also associated with the prominent Canaanite fertility god, whose cult attracted many Israelites away from the undivided worship of Yahweh, Israelite worshipers abandoned its use for Yahweh in favor of ’ish (Hos. 2:16). Biblical scribes sometimes substituted the word bosheth, “shame, shameful thing,” in proper names that used ba‘al (as in Mephibosheth for Meribaal). However, the Israelite prophets often compare the covenant between Yahweh and Israel to a marriage, especially in the portrayal of Israel and Judah as unfaithful wives (Hos. 2:1–13; Ezek. 23); in this sense Jeremiah applies the verbal form ba‘al, “be a husband,” to Yahweh (Jer. 31:32). In the New Testament, Paul uses the term husband (anēr) figuratively of Christ (2 Cor. 11:2), and the image of the church as the bride of Christ (Eph. 5:22–30; Rev. 21:2, 9) presupposes the concept.

Rock (Tzur). This word is sometimes translated “strength,” “might,” or “mighty,” and refers to the power of the Lord to protect his people; examples are 2 Samuel 22:47; Psalm 18:46; and Habakkuk 1:12. Tzur also indicates faithfulness (Deut. 32:4) and can be used as a synonym for God, as in Deuteronomy 32:18: “You deserted the Rock, who fathered you; you forgot the God who gave you birth.” The Lord calls himself a rock over which Israel will stumble (Isa. 8:14), and the New Testament sees Jesus as the embodiment of that rock of offense, who becomes the cornerstone of the new temple of God, the church (Luke 20:17–18; Rom. 9:33; Eph. 2:20; 1 Pet. 2:8). Paul also identifies Jesus as the Rock (hē petra) from which water gushed to quench the thirst of God’s people during their wilderness wanderings (1 Cor. 10:4).

Shepherd (Ro‘eh) or Shepherd of Israel (Ro‘eh Yisra’el). The latter phrase occurs in Psalm 80:1. Ancient kings were often called shepherds of their people. As shepherd, a king’s primary duty was to “feed the flock,” which was the nation over which he reigned. God takes the shepherds of Israel to task for leading them into idolatry and sin and causing them to abandon the worship of Yahweh, a violation of their responsibility to feed their people the law of the Lord (Jer. 23:1–2; Ezek. 34:2–10). As King of Israel, Yahweh is its Shepherd. Speaking to Israel, God declares, “You my sheep, the sheep of my pasture, are people, and I am your God” (Ezek. 34:31). David calls the Lord his Shepherd (Ps. 23:1) and describes God’s care and provision for him in terms of food (green pastures) and drink (quiet pools of water). Jesus identifies himself as the Good Shepherd, poimēn, who gives his life for the sheep (John 10:11). The writer of Hebrews calls him the “great Shepherd of the sheep” (13:20), and John pictures Jesus as the Lamb, who is the Shepherd in the midst of the worshiping church, feeding his flock and guiding them to living water (Rev. 7:16–17).

Ancient of Days (‘Attiq yomin). This term is an idiomatic Aramaic expression that literally means “aged one.” As it is used in Daniel 7:9, 13, and 22, it conveys the thought of the antiquity of God. Daniel’s description of the Ancient of Days with hair like white wool is echoed in Revelation 1:14, in which John sees “one like a son of man” standing in the midst of the golden lampstands, his head and hair “white like wool.” In using this language, John is identifying Jesus with Daniel’s Ancient of Days, or Yahweh, as he also does when he writes that Jesus was “in the beginning … with God” (John 1:1) and “before Abraham” (John 8:58).

God of Gods (’Elohei ha’ƒlohim). This phrase (Deut. 10:17) is an example of a Hebrew idiom that indicates a superlative. It does not mean there are other gods of whom Yahweh is the head but that he is the great and powerful God.

Lord of Lords (’Adonai ha’‡donim, Kurios kuriōn). This is another example of a Hebrew idiom (Deut. 10:17) that indicates a superlative. The phrase means “great and lordly Lord.” The idiom is carried over into the Greek (Rev. 19:16), although it is not idiomatic Greek, because the writers of the New Testament spoke and thought in a Semitic language. As a matter of fact, however, the covenant Lord is a Lord over other lords, since he is the great King in covenant with the priest-kings who make up the church (Rev. 1:6). As applied to Christ, the title is paired with “King of kings.”

Glory (Kavod). The Hebrew word kavod denotes glory in the sense of “mass, weight.” It refers to the radiant envelope or numinous aura of the manifest presence of the Lord. The Scriptures refer often to the glory of God, and occasionally the word glory stands for the Lord himself (Pss. 3:3; 89:17). This concept was more fully developed in the later Jewish Rabbinic writings, in which the word shƒkhinah (from the root shakhan, “dwell”) became synonymous with God himself in the sense of his abiding glory. (Shƒkhinah is not used in the Bible.)

Power (Dunamis). The power of God is made known in his Creation, his acts of deliverance, his miracles and wonders, and especially in the resurrection of Christ and the administration of his kingdom. Jesus uses the term Power as a synonym for God in responding to the Jewish high priest at his trial: “You shall see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of Power, and coming with the clouds of heaven” (Mark 14:62 nasb; cf. Luke 22:69).

Majesty (Megalōsunē). The august and majestic presence of the living God is expressed by this word, which literally means “greatness.” The author of Hebrews uses it twice as a substitute for “God” (Heb. 1:3; 8:1).

Almighty (Pantokratōr). The title means “ruler of all things” and is used mainly in the Revelation to John (though also by Paul, 2 Cor. 6:18). The Greek Old Testament often employed this term to translate the phrase “Yahweh of hosts,” and sometimes it appears in quotations from the Old Testament (Rev. 1:8; 4:8). As a title, “Almighty” is usually found in a context of judgment and wrath (Rev. 16:14; 19:15) and occurs several times in the majestic hymns of the Revelation (Rev. 11:17; 15:3; 16:7). In the renewed covenant of the new Jerusalem, “the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb” are the temple (Rev. 21:22).