Latin – uSeminary

The very word hymn comes from the Greek hymnos, which means a song of praise to a god or hero. Adapting this pagan practice for their own use, early Christians wrote many hymns that have become models for hymn writers over the centuries. The hymns of both early Greek and Latin Christians are represented in the most recent American hymnals by the inclusion of five to eighty selections. These hymns reflect the faith and thought of many of the most well-known early Christian leaders and theologians.

Early Greek Hymnody

The Christian hymn of the New Testament church and the early church was distinctively a song of praise to Christ as God. This fact has been verified in the well known letter of Pliny the Younger to Emperor Trajan in which Pliny, speaking of the Christ followers, states that “they were accustomed to come together on a regular day before dawn and to sing a song alternately to Christ as a god” (M. Alfred Bishsel, “Greek and Latin Hymnody,” in Hymnal Companion to the Lutheran Book of Worship [Philadelphia: Fortress Press, l981], 4).

Moreover, the Apostolic Constitutions of the fourth century mention a number of Greek hymns for morning and evening services. One such liturgical morning hymn was an expansion of the Greater Doxology, with one stanza which was later included in the Te Deum. And one of the evening hymns combined the opening of Psalm 113, a paraphrase of the Gloria in Excelsis, and the text of the Song of Simeon. Another Greek hymn found in the liturgies of Clementine, St. Mark, St. James, and St. John Chrysostom and which is still sung today is the Trisagion (Thrice Holy Hymn) based upon the opening verses of Isaiah 6. Of particular importance to early Christians was the hymn Doxa Patri, which is identical to the Latin Gloria Patri—“Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages. Amen.” This Trinitarian statement came to be used in both Greek and Latin liturgies in order to give a Christian interpretation to the reading and singing of psalms.

This first period of Greek hymnody took place during the time of St. Clement of Alexandria, who lived from about a.d. 170 until about a.d. 220. His work combined the ideals of Greek poetry and Christian theology. An example from this period, which is still in common usage, is the devotional song “Lord Jesus, Think on Me”, written by Synesius (c. a.d. 375–c. 414 ). The most familiar song of the Liturgy of St. James of Jerusalem is the Christmas hymn “Let All Mortal Flesh Keep Silent.” Another hymn that is still sung at evening services is “O Gladsome Light” (Phos Hilaron), composed by an anonymous poet of the Alexandrian School.

During the second period of Greek hymnody (the most brilliant period) St. John of Damascus (c. a.d. 670–c. 780) was the leading writer of Greek canons. Each canon consisted of nine odes (eight in actual practice), and each ode consisted of from three to twenty stanzas. It was not until the nineteenth century that St. John of Damascus’ brilliant poems were translated into English. After twelve years of work, John Mason Neale, the first and leading translator of Greek hymns, published in 1862 his collection, Hymns of the Eastern Church. In that book we find “The Golden Canon” or “Canon for Easter Day,” which is still sung today on Easter Sunday.

Latin Hymnody

The number of hymns in current American hymnals representing the development of the Latin hymn ranges from five to eighty. The earliest of these hymns were written after the Council of Nicaea (a.d. 325) and the adoption of the Nicene Creed. They became the means of combating Arian theology, which was propagated in the sermons, poems, and hymns of Arius of Alexandria, who had been excommunicated from the church by the Council of Nicaea.

One early hymn writer was St. Hilary, the Bishop of Poitiers (c. a.d. 310–366), who became familiar with the singing of hymns by Greek Orthodox believers during his four-year exile in Asia Minor. Upon his return to Poitiers he immediately began to write hymns in a decided effort to combat false doctrine and to reinforce Trinitarian theology.

It was also the goal of Ambrose, Bishop of Milan (a.d. 341–397) to use hymn singing to combat Arianism. Sensitive to the need for immediate acceptance of the hymns, he chose the popular folk rhythm, long meter form. This, too, followed the practice of hymn singing in Eastern churches. His work is represented in a number of contemporary hymnals by the Trinitarian hymn, “O Splendor of God’s Glory Bright.”

Another prolific writer of Latin hymns was the lawyer Prudentius (a.d. 348–413). He, too, was determined to fight Arianism and to present the Orthodox doctrine of the two natures in Christ. In his retirement, he devoted much of his time and energy to the writing of spiritual songs in Rome. Many Christians know and love his magnificent Christmas hymn, “Of the Father’s Love Begotten.”

During the succeeding centuries there appeared other accomplished Latin poets. Fortunatus (a.d. 530–609), later Bishop of Poitiers, wrote four hymns still in current usage. “The Royal Banners Forward Go” and “Sing My Tongue” are often sung during Lent. His two Easter hymns are the lengthy “Welcome Happy Morn” and the triumphant “Hail Thee Festival Day.” The familiar Palm Sunday text, “All Glory, Laud, and Honor,” was the work of Theodulph of Orleans (c. 760–821), a student of Prudentius. The hymn of the Holy Spirit, “Come Holy Spirit, Our Souls Inspire,” has been attributed to Maurus (d. 856). And finally, one morning hymn by St. Gregory (540–604), “Father, We Praise Thee,” also is also incorporated in some contemporary hymnals.

In the latter part of the Middle Ages a number of monasteries that exerted an enormous influence on religious life throughout Europe for some three hundred years were established. The most influential leader at the beginning of this important movement was Bernard of Clairvaux (c. 1091–1153). In his own lifetime, some 162 monasteries were established, and within the next eighty-five years the number rose to five hundred. The chief emphasis of Bernard’s texts was his own personal cry for holiness. The highly reflective and deeply devotional character of these texts is quite evident in a thoughtful reading of “O Sacred Head Now Wounded,” “Jesus the Very Thought of Thee,” and “Jesus, Thou Joy of Loving Hearts,” subjective prayers arising out of his personal relationship with the Savior.

In contrast to the devotional focus of these hymns, Bernard of Cluny’s 3,800-line poem, “Jerusalem the Golden,” spoke out against the many evils of his time. The thirteenth century is represented also by Saint Francis of Assisi’s hymn of praise, “All Creatures of Our God and King.” Three other Latin hymns still widely known and treasured are the Advent prayer “O Come, O Come Emmanuel,” the Christmas hymn “O Come All ye Faithful,” and the Easter song, “O Sons and Daughters.”

The change in the worship experience of twentieth-century Roman Catholics may be appreciated by briefly looking at history. In the sixteenth century, Reformers had posed challenges to the lack of intelligibility of medieval Catholic worship experience to the laity. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) responded to the challenge by revising liturgical books, but the Latin language was retained and the textual uniformity remained. A Roman-centered Sacred Congregation of Rites insured a rubrical uniformity that often resulted in overemphasis on rubrics and underemphasis on people’s prayer.

The Liturgical Movement

In the rapidly changing world of the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries, the minimal participation of the people in the liturgy and its lack of intelligibility became growing liabilities. The liturgical movement of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries would eventually address these liabilities with sound historical and biblical research. Dom Prosper Gueranger re-founded the Abbey of Solesme (1833) and dedicated it to scholarly study of sources of liturgy. This research, though medieval in emphasis, prompted other scholars to undertake varieties of studies that contributed to the flowering of twentieth-century liturgical renewal. Dom Lambert Beaudin, like others who joined him in the liturgical revival, emphasized the liturgy as the people’s prayer. The essential unity of life and worship, of prayer and justice, was a constant thread of the liturgical movement.

Prior to Vatican II (1960-1965), Pope Pius XII gave official impetus to the liturgical renewal in Mystici Corporis (1943) and Mediator Dei (1947). The Pontifical Commission for General Liturgical Restoration, which he established, effected restoration of the Easter Vigil (1951), reforms of Holy Week liturgies (1955), and greater participation of the people in the music and prayers of the liturgy (1958).

The successful impact of the liturgical movement can be seen in the early approval of “The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy” (Sacrosanctum Concilium) at Vatican II in 1962. The document makes clear the centrality of the celebration of the paschal mystery for the life of the church: “The liturgy is the summit toward which the activity of the church is directed; at the same time it is the fount from which the church’s power flows” (S.C., 10). Liturgy is “the outstanding means whereby the faithful express in their lives and manifest to others the mystery of Christ and the real nature of the true Church” (S.C., 2).

Implementing Liturgical Reform

The renewal and reform of Roman Catholic worship has taken many years, and is still ongoing. In 1964 Paul VI began the task of implementing the liturgical reforms called for by the “Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy.” An international commission of experts (the Consilium) had the task of revising the liturgical books. In 1964 the International Commission for English in the Liturgy (ICEL) was established to accomplish the translation of prayer texts from Latin to English for all the English-speaking peoples.

In the United States, the national conference of bishops established the Bishop’s Committee on the Liturgy (BCL) to monitor and mobilize ongoing liturgical reforms in the United States. In 1965, that committee started publishing a newsletter. Diocesan liturgical commissions were also established to implement the liturgical reforms in dioceses. The Federation of Diocesan Liturgical Commissions (FDLC) would supervise the various diocesan liturgical commissions.

The post-Vatican II liturgical reforms are still in process. The Liturgical Conference, established in 1950, continues to extend the liturgical apostolate in the United States and Canada. Its ecumenical liturgical publications and workshops have aided many pastoral ministers in varieties of Christian worship traditions. The National Association of Pastoral Musicians and the National Association of Liturgical Ministers continue to foster appreciation for and implementation of musical and liturgical renewal on local levels. The North American Academy of Liturgy, founded in 1973, and Societas Liturgica gathers liturgical scholars together for exchange of insights about many areas of liturgical renewal.

A series of revised liturgical books have been officially promulgated since 1970. A new Roman Missal, Missale Romanum (New York: Catholic Book Publishing Co.), with introductory theology and rubrical instructions, was promulgated in 1970 and revised in 1973 and 1975. This missal contains the variety of prayers for celebration of the Eucharist throughout the days and weeks of the liturgical year, including the lectionary readings for the daily and weekly eucharistic celebrations. A revised Lectionary is due in 1993.

The Liturgy of Hours was published in its four-volume English revision in 1975. Sacramental rituals of marriage, children’s liturgies, initiation of children and adults, reconciliation, anointing, orders, and other ministries have been revised. Rites I (New York: Pueblo Publishing Co., 1976, 1983), Rites IA (New York: Pueblo, 1976, 1983, 1988), and Rites II (New York: Pueblo, 1980) contain these rituals. In an attempt to make ritual blessings more a part of family life, the Bishops’ Committee on the Liturgy has published a book of blessings for various occasions.

The interest in liturgical music for the many occasions of sacramental worship can be seen in the variety of post-Vatican II hymnals using a wide variety of musical instruments and musical forms.

Progress and Remaining Challenges

There has been a great change in liturgical participation and appreciation since Vatican II. While some Roman Catholics still celebrate a “Latin mass” (Lord’s Supper), the majority have embraced the renewed worship experience of sung and vocal prayers. A renewed interest in the Word of God has come through the hearing of more of the Scriptures in the Liturgy of the Word. Bodily movement and gestures, though still somewhat hindered by North American self-consciousness, have been encouraged in dance and other forms of expression.

At the same time, some of the texts and contexts for prayer are a matter of ongoing concern. Though some texts have been changed to reflect the inclusion of all in the mystery of the redemption, the exclusive nature of many liturgical readings, prayers, symbols, and metaphors requires ongoing critique and prayerful study. The multicultural population of Roman Catholicism requires respect for the cultural conditioning of the prayer experience and imaging of God. The Eurocentric male worldview that conditions prayer texts is too limited for a universal paschal mystery that touches everyone in some way.

A concern that requires further reflection is the increasing frequency of Sunday Communion services in absence of a priest. Due to the shortage of seminary-trained male clergy, Rome has decided that laity may lead the community in a service of the Word and also a Communion service. This denies the emphasis of Vatican II on the centrality of eucharistic liturgy as well as suggesting the Lord’s Supper is the possession of ordained clergy.

The tradition of celebrating the oneness of the church calls for ongoing dialogue in which Christians look together at the meaning of belief in one Lord, one faith, and one baptism.