Hellenistic

A Biblical Philosophy of the Visual Arts in Worship

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As worship arts, the visual arts include architecture, sculpture, painting, mosaic, and the crafting of artifacts. These arts create durable objects that may be seen and handled. Although of lesser importance in the biblical perspective than some other art forms, the visual arts may serve as effective windows into the holy.

Static Nature of the Visual Arts

With the exception of architecture and its associated furnishings, the visual arts are given lesser importance in biblical worship than are other art forms. The reason for this may be found in the character of Yahweh. The Bible associates his name with a Hebrew phrase meaning “I will be who I will be,” and makes clear that he is known by his people through their experience with him in the ongoing events of redemptive history. In other words, Yahweh is not known statically, as a reality to be grasped only at one moment of time; no static image can represent him. Rather, he represents himself dynamically, as one known through his actions and deeds of deliverance.

The visual arts tend to have a static character; that is, objects of visual art may exist in their entirety at one moment. Moreover, they do not require the participation of a community in order to exist; a temple or a painting does not cease to be when no one is looking at it. On the other hand, literature (especially in its oral stage), music, and liturgy are dynamic arts. They must be presented over a period of time, and they require the participation of the community in order to exist. These dynamic arts can more adequately reflect the character of God as he has revealed himself within the biblical tradition, in the context of his covenant, and of the unfolding of his historical purposes. Further, though all the fine arts tend to be the creations of gifted individuals, the need for individual design and execution is greater for a material object than for a work of music, literature, or drama, which can be modified by those who recite or perform it. The visual arts, however much they may assume traditional forms and may be intended to express the identity and faith of the artist’s community, are still prone to be personal expressions, stand-alone creations representing the work of an individual.

Nevertheless, since worship depends on symbolism, the visual arts play a role in the worship of the covenant people. The fashioning of effective symbols requires the skilled hand of the artisan. There is the ever-present danger that the symbol can be misunderstood—the dilemma of Jeroboam, whose bull images of Yahweh’s throne (1 Kings 12:28) were too easily taken for Baalistic motifs. Ancient Israel always faced, and often yielded to, the temptation to compromise the historical faith of Yahwehism by combining it with the cyclical, mythological rites of popular fertility cults, with their associated idolatry. Also, it is an easy step to magnify the symbol over the reality it represents. The indispensable function of symbols as windows into the holy, however, requires that the biblical worshiper employ them, taking the risks involved and trusting in the integrity of the covenant faith and its precepts to protect him or her from apostasy.

Architecture: The Temple

The great visual symbol of biblical worship is the temple. Both the Solomonic and the Herodian temples were architectural monuments, neither of them destined to survive the centuries (although the foundation stones of the temple enclosure remain as the Qotel Hamma‘‡ravi, or Western Wall, in Jerusalem). The temple of Herod was still under construction during the time of Jesus’ ministry and was completed only a few years before its destruction by the armies of Rome in a.d. 70, as Jesus had predicted (Mark 13:1–2). The decorative motifs of Solomon’s temple, of which we have a good biblical description, disclose the link between the created order and human artifice. On a larger scale, the temple was really an architectural microcosm of the whole of creation, of “heaven and earth.” In it, the worshiper encountered God enthroned in the heavens (Ps. 123:1), establishing the earth (Ps. 96:10) and preserving its creatures (Ps. 36:6–7), defeating the enemies of his people (Ps. 76:2–3), and blessing the land as the source of the river of life (Ps. 46:4; Ezek. 47:9).

Israel’s theologians understood, of course, that the sanctuary, however magnificent as a work of art, was inadequate as a bearer of the sacred (1 Kings 8:27; cf. Isa. 66:1). Moses did not invent the design of the tabernacle but was told by Yahweh to make it according to the pattern he would reveal (Exod. 25:9); in the New Testament, we encounter the concept of the heavenly sanctuary, of which the earthly one is but a copy (Heb. 8–9; cf. 2 Cor. 5:1; Rev. 11:19). No holy place of human construction may contain the presence of the holy; in Jesus’ words to the woman of Samaria, “neither on this mountain [Gerizim] nor in Jerusalem” (John 4:21) may people worship the Father in the authenticity of spiritual worship. Nevertheless, the Israelite temple, as a work of art and beauty, is the background for the New Testament symbolism of the worshiping church, the New Jerusalem, the tabernacle in which God dwells among his people (Rev. 21:1–3).

Artistic Craftsmanship

To execute a work of art requires craftsmanship; in the biblical perspective, craftsmanship itself is an art form, employing the skills of the artisan in the creation of useful objects. A corollary of the dynamic conception of Yahweh as Creator of a coherent universe and the doer of “mighty works” in his historic deeds of deliverance is the ability to find beauty in that which is utilitarian, that which functions properly and accomplishes useful work, as well as in that which is decorative. This is especially true of the implements of worship. Only this can account for the prominence given to the skilled craftsmen Bezalel and Oholiab in the instructions for the creation of the tabernacle (Exod. 31:1–11). When viewed with an eye to visual appeal, the artifacts of the Mosaic sanctuary are mostly functional rather than “beautiful” in the aesthetic sense. They are described in terms of how they are to fit together for assembly, disassembly, and transport during the travels of the people; this is their “beauty.”

Scripture places a high value on skillful work: “Do you see a man skilled in his work? He will serve before kings; he will not serve before obscure men” (Prov. 22:29). Such was true of Huram-abi (also called Hiram), the chief craftsman of Solomon’s temple. He was sent to Solomon by Hiram, the king of Tyre, who furnished the materials for the sanctuary, and though Phoenician he was half Israelite (2 Chron. 2:13–14). The application of training and skill to the worship arts is also seen, for example, in the work of David’s musician Asaph and his associates (1 Chron. 25:1–7). The apostle Paul gave voice to the foundational biblical philosophy of artistic craftsmanship when he placed it within a wider context: “Whatever you do, whether in word or deed, do it all in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through him” (Col. 3:17).

Painting, Sculpture, and Mosaic

Painting as an art form was practiced in ancient cultures, though most of what has survived for the appreciation of the modern student has been limited to decorated pottery or frescoes on the walls of tombs. The sculpture and statuary of Hellenistic civilization are well known and played a major role in the recovery of the principles of classical art during the Renaissance. Sculpture in stone was an important art in Semitic cultures of the ancient Near East, as attested by the numerous cultic images, palace bas-reliefs, commemorative obelisks, and the like that have come to light through archaeological research. Mosaic, or inlaid multicolored tile, came into use at a later period than these other arts, beginning with Hellenistic floor designs and becoming increasingly important until well into the Christian era.

The Bible does not discuss these visual arts, except to condemn and ridicule the sculpted images of the polytheistic religions (Ps. 115:4–8; Isa. 44:12–19; 46:1–2; cf. Acts 17:16; 19:23–26). In the centuries following the New Testament period, Christian theologians held a negative view of the visual arts, rejecting them as sensual and unspiritual. Here, as with so much else, the post-apostolic church departed from the biblical perspective, influenced by Hellenistic philosophy, which created an unscriptural dichotomy between the spiritual and the material. Paul had decried such asceticism, calling it “hollow and deceptive philosophy” (Col. 2:8) and asking, “Why do you submit to regulations, ‘Do not handle, Do not taste, Do not touch?’ ” (Col. 2:20–21 RSV).

Despite the strictures of theologians, the visual arts flourished in the early church; the ordinary worshiper at this period had a more sure instinct than the theologian for what was biblical. The walls of the Roman catacombs, or burial chambers, are adorned with scenes and characters from the Bible, including events in the ministry of Jesus, and with Christian symbolism. The same is true of sculpture on early Christian sarcophagi or stone coffins. A favorite theme, for example, was that of Jonah and the great fish, a symbol of the Resurrection (Matt. 12:40); it appears on the tomb alleged to have been Peter’s, in Rome. The loaves and fish of Christ’s feeding of the multitude (John 6:1–14) occur, in fresco, as a symbol of the Eucharist. Furthermore, the catacomb paintings provide a pictorial record of the early church, depicting men and women with arms lifted in prayer. As the church emerged from its subversive status and began to erect buildings for worship, the art of mosaic took up many of the same themes. The pointillistic, two-dimensional technique of mosaic gives it a special quality as a vehicle for the expression of the numinous. It was to reach its peak of development centuries later in the majestic Christos Pantokratōr (“Christ, Ruler of All”) mosaics above the apses of many basilicas in the Mediterranean world; in them, we view an awesome, powerful, living Christ, his right hand raised in the gesture of blessing, in his left the gospel book.

Synagogue Architecture

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The architecture of the synagogue reflected its function as a place where the Jewish community gathered for prayer, the study of the Law, and other activities. The synagogue often borrowed architectural features from the prevailing Greco-Roman culture.

Architecture

The architecture of the early Middle Eastern synagogues was similar to that which prevailed throughout the Hellenistic and later Roman ages. The synagogue grounds were surrounded by a low wall within which the synagogue met. Documents from Turkey and other countries of the early medieval period show that often the congregation met outdoors, although at other times in private rooms. Usually, the synagogue was divided in some fashion into a sector for men and a separate and lesser room for the women. In the earliest Palestinian synagogues, such as that at Masada and those at Capernaum, Chorazin, and Kefr Bir’im, stone seats in the form of a double tier ran the length of three walls. Such buildings had either a separate balcony for women or some separation down the center. In the Roman age, many of these buildings were of a type of Corinthian Greek design with freestanding columns in the front portico, and columns arranged in rows within the sanctuary to support the vaulted ceilings.

Location

In accordance with certain Talmudic instructions that must have been in the oral lore of Judaism, all the synagogues were built in such a fashion that the congregations could face Jerusalem. The common practice was to erect the building on a small hill or prominence, sometimes near water but always in such a fashion that the back wall, which faced the door, was toward Jerusalem. The temple in Jerusalem represented the priestly element and ritual in Judaism, so the elaborate ceremonial architecture of the later synagogues was unnecessary until after the destruction of the temple in a.d. 70. Whether the local synagogues were built as models or miniatures of the great temple or conceived as centers for the rituals is debated. By the first century, the style of construction was set and the synagogue was located in the center of the market square.

Structure

By the first century a.d. the basilica type of building, with its massive and ornamented facade, became the standard synagogue form. However, the extent of symbolism and the expanse was limited by the economic ability of the congregation. There is no clear-cut evolution of synagogal architecture, and each community of the Diaspora seems to have built structures best suited to its situation. The widespread use of the half-square, half-round columns and the elaborate shell niches, both associated with Roman buildings, demonstrates how deeply Greco-Roman civilization had altered the Jewish mind. In or about the middle of the blank wall opposite the entrance doors was the location of the niche or chamber in which the sacred rolls of the Torah were kept. Such cabinets or chests set in the east wall were often ornamented and decorated with hangings and embellishments of considerable value. One of the most interesting appointments of the early synagogues was the gƒnizah, a place either in a cellar or pit or in an old attic high in the wall, where the worn and frayed parchment scrolls were placed. Since they bore the divine name of God they could not be desecrated or destroyed, so their contents were interred. Ancient scrolls of inestimable value have been discovered in gƒnizot from a number of synagogues. In the center, and later front, of the hall was the bēma, an upraised platform on which the scrolls were placed for reading; the bēma was also used for the sermon, which was a sort of explanation of the text.

Furniture and Decoration

The furniture of the ancient synagogue was utilitarian and connected with the service. The Torah ark was frequently carved or encrusted with some type of decoration and covered with magnificent hangings and covers, called parohet, and often richly ornamented with silver and gold embroideries. The bema, or lecterns, might be carved and inlaid, and often the great seven-branched candelabra, or mƒnorah, was also richly decorated. Many smaller articles, lampstands, ritual implements for the holy days such as Yom Kippur and the pilgrimages of Pesaḥ, Shavu‘ot, and Sukkot, were present in the synagogue. The decoration of the synagogues was a subject of much debate and alteration of tastes. The earliest ones often show a strangely exotic degree of profusion in Hellenistic and Roman motifs. The ancient congregations at Capernaum and Chorazin decorated their edifices with stone lions, elaborate bands of designs using plant motifs, and epigraphic inscriptions in uncial Greek. They carved many similar natural motifs on the furniture; pomegranates, grapes, and similar fruit and vegetables are seen. This type of symbolism was developed from the Old Testament as the temple was to have such ornamentation in the same fashion as the wilderness tabernacle. However, the strict prohibition against the portrayal of the human form was also in evidence. One decorative feature that survived the ages in the synagogue was the use of mosaic tiles. Numerous elaborate natural figures, including the signs of the zodiac and small animals, are found. The ancient synagogue at Beit Alpha is especially noted for these fine mosaics. Few synagogue frescoes have survived from antiquity, but those from Dura Europus and elsewhere show artistic affinities to the sculpting of the mosaics, as does Christian art of the period. Again, the scenes are of the various festivals, with some few architectural constructs and what may be patriarchal stories in smaller registers. The motifs of the sun, the wheel, the candle, the plant, the fruit, and the various Greek running figures, such as the arrow, the egg, and the dart are all found in the synagogue.