Good Friday

Dances for the Seasons of the Christian Year

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The seasons and feasts of the church year offer numerous possibilities for congregational movement and choreographed dance. Significant dimensions of these celebrations are best experienced through such action.

The liturgical celebrations during the seasons provide variety, color, texture, emotion, and richness of theme to what would be a rather unexciting “ordinary time.” Each season has its own particular symbols as well as those that are part of the ritual throughout the year, such as bread and wine, water, and oil. In Advent, the symbols are darkness and light; at Christmas, light, and birth, evergreens, and angelic choirs; in Lent, ashes, and palms; in Easter, water, light, oil, flowers, and signs of new life; at Pentecost, fire, wind, and dancing people. There is a dramatic sequence to the events of the year that call forth a special ritual response in symbolic moments. These “moments” are most often built into the rituals of the year, such as the Easter vigil. The problem that often arises, however, is that somehow these symbols are blurred and do not speak clearly. Many persons who have used liturgically danced prayer have discovered that gestures, movements, and dances in some form can indeed make the symbols of the seasons “come alive” and “speak” to the assembly. Because these celebrations are so special, they demand special attention to the symbols and the way in which these symbols are allowed to communicate. Dancers in the liturgy serve as “symbol-bearers”; the first and foremost symbol being the human body itself … a body that is called to be the place of divine and human interaction. A look at some of these seasonal celebrations can yield specific suggestions to make them expressive of the human desire to communicate with God and God’s desire to speak an incarnational language.

Advent and Christmas

“The people who walked in darkness have seen a great light” (Isa. 8). The primary symbols of the Advent season are darkness and light. It is a season of expectation and hope that is expressed in the flickering lights of candles glowing in the darkness and the enduring hope captured in the symbol of the “Advent wreath,” a circle of evergreens, claiming a promise soon to be fulfilled and a longing that will never die.

A traditional song of the Advent season is “O come, O Come Emmanuel.” It has been the source of many Advent processionals. What I would suggest is a simple walking pattern with a pause or lunge on the “Rejoice! Rejoice!” section of the song. What can make the processional beautiful and interesting, however, is the movement of the lights. This can be done by holding the candles in both hands or one, moving them in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction. With the Advent wreath carried in the middle of the processioners, the effect of the lights dancing around the wreath is created. Once one verse is established in its movement, a simple choreographic device can be used in geometric patterns that change the visual perception (do not, however, confuse the dancers by adding extra “steps”). The basic pattern can be done around the altar in a circle or using diagonal lines through the celebration space. Even the most inexperienced choreographer can devise an interesting processional movement with a simple walking base, some upper arm/body movements, and the use of geometric patterns. This procession of lights for the Advent season can be an effective and solemn way to engage the assembly in the symbols of light and darkness. An advantage is that this does not demand trained dancers; it can be done by most members of the community who are willing to learn and practice.

Many of the readings during the Advent season speak of God’s glory. Another effective use of the symbol of light would be to keep the electric lights extinguished even after the opening processional. As the liturgy of the Word continues, a few more candles are lit. The Alleluia proclamation could then become a dance of lights around the gospel book. This would bring to expression the Word as light in the lives of the faithful people: “your Word is a lantern.” There is a beautiful Alleluia setting in Peloquin’s “Lord of Life” that is solemn, reverential, and very suitable to the theme of the Word incarnate in the Advent season. Again, there could be a simple movement of the feet, a basic walking pattern, with more movement of lifting, lowering, turning, and passing the light as it shines on the gospel book.

All through the liturgy, during the preparation of gifts, the creed, and so on, more lights could be lit. The gradual impression of light building can be an effective means of having the assembly “come alive” to the light. By the conclusion of the liturgy the space would be ablaze with light. At this point, as a closing expression of faith, the song “City of God” from the St. Louis Jesuits’ Lord of Light could be sung and danced. The lyrics speak of the light in the darkness, our tears turned into dancing, and other appropriate expressions of the Advent season. Depending upon the assembly, space, and time of preparation, this could be danced by those trained in the community or be simplified as a congregational dance given the requirements of space, time for preparation, and openness to this kind of communal prayer expression. If it is impossible with the assembly, it is possible to use a simple, but lively dance in a triple meter that many could do with willingness and preparation. This closing song and dance would express the primary symbol of a people who share their faith, their hope, their love, and their desire to “build the city of God.”

Alternative Advent Suggestions

First Sunday—Year A. Begin the liturgy with the proclamation of the first reading, Isaiah 2:1–5. The image is walking together in the light of the Lord, streaming toward God’s holy mountain. Immediately following the proclamation (ideally done in some other gathering place) the whole assembly or selected members and ministers would “go up with joy to the house of the Lord.” Carrying the symbols of the season, the procession would in fact do what the first reading and psalm are speaking about: a joyful journey in faith and hope. A simple tripudium step; three forward one back could be the basis of this easy, rhythmic procession. Another new addition to the musical repertory is Peloquin’s “Let us Go Rejoicing” from his Songs of Israel II.

Third Sunday—Years A and C. There are certain readings that are meant to be simply “listened” to and reflected on. There are others, however, that can vividly be “expressed” through mime, drama, or dance. There is something about certain readings that calls for an appropriate visualization as well as a clear proclamation. In the third Sunday of Advent, the theme of rejoicing is most explicit. In Isaiah 35:1–6 and Zephaniah 3:14–18, the readings use images of physical exultation, of life-giving expression. These readings could be “interpreted” by competent members of the community who have some training and background in mime or dance. The important caution, however, is that it not be a literal interpretation, using gestures or movements that say the same thing as the verbal text. The idea of this kind of interpretation is to capture the underlying emotions and conflicts and give them life through the movement. It is not to “picture” or “act out” what the words are saying. Its purpose is to enliven the spirit, not to burden it with repetitive images. The difficulty is that this kind of interpretation demands much planning and work with the reader of the text. Because there is no musical support, the rhythm of the language and the dancer’s body have to mesh into an expressive unity. This is a most difficult liturgical dance and yet it seems to be a frequent addition to liturgies. Anyone who feels “moved by the spirit” comes forward to “interpret” the reading or the psalm. Such movement can be a distraction to the community. Because this interpretation demands so much coordination, it demands sufficient preparation to enable the movement to speak its own language and not be imitative of the verbal language.

Isaiah 35, for example, describes very clear and precise images: the desert blooming, feeble hands, weak knees, eyes of the blind opened, ears of the deaf cleared. The literal way of presenting this reading would be an attempt to find nonverbal images that correspond to the verbal images. One would be at pains to find explicit images for blindness, deafness, or weak knees. It is better to leave this to the imagination of the listener. An alternative is for two dancers to reveal the underlying expectation, excitement, and miraculous joy that stems from the experience of God’s transformation. The challenge is to bring alive the emotional content of the reading and bring that to expression for those who are hearing and feeling that excitement. Meeting the challenge with this kind of liturgical movement is rewarding if it is done well. It enables the living Word to come to life.

First Sunday—Year B. The first reading of this liturgy, Isaiah 63, has been set to music by the St. Louis Jesuits (“Redeemer Lord,” Lord of Light). The driving rhythms and the musical dissonance make this a very interesting piece of danceable liturgical music. (Often the unchanging rhythms of much liturgical music do not aid the dynamics of dance.) Through music and movement, the Isaiah passage could be effectively communicated.

The climax of the Advent season is the celebration of the birth of Christ, the Incarnation. On this feast, it is especially appropriate to “incarnate” the church’s liturgy through movement prayer. Christmas is a season of wonder. The liturgy of this season needs to capture this sense of wonder, especially as it is embodied in the lives of children.

The Directory for Masses with Children encourages, “the development of gestures, postures, and actions … in view of the nature of the liturgy as an activity of the entire man and in view of the psychology of children” (33). It goes on to say that

the processional entrance of the children with the priest may help them to experience a sense of the communion that is thus constituted. The participation of at least some of the children in the procession with the book of the gospels makes clear the presence of Christ who announces his word to the people The procession of children with the chalice and gifts expresses clearly the value and meaning of the presentation of gifts. The communion procession, if properly arranged, helps greatly to develop the piety of children. (34)

The liturgy of Christmas should embrace these instructions and let the children give expression to their wonder in specific shape and form. There are numerous Christmas carols that can be used in procession. The story of Christmas can be told through different carols with the children dancing or miming. The origin of the carol is rooted in dance forms that were used in conjunction with the music. The Christmas liturgy would be an excellent opportunity to use the musical settings designed for children, such as Peloquin’s “Unless You Become.” This work affords many opportunities for movement acclamation, especially during the Alleluia and Eucharistic prayer.

The Advent/Christmas season is rich with symbols of hope, of longing, of wonder, and promise. In the liturgies of this season, gesture, movement, and dance can incarnate what is hoped for and what has already been fulfilled in the coming of Christ.

Lent

The Lenten season has its own richness of symbolic expression beginning with the celebration of ashes and culminating with the powerful symbols of Holy Week. It is a season in the church’s liturgy that allows the experience of the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus to be remembered in the lives of the assembled faithful. It is most important during this season that the assembly be engaged in embodied prayer so that it may experience its unique participation in the Easter event. The renewed place of the catechumenate during this season has been helpful in letting the assembly claim the process of conversion as its own. The following are some suggestions for the involvement of the whole assembly as well as specific examples of dance during the Lenten/Easter season. It is a time of penitence, journeying, growth in self-knowledge, a time to deepen one’s knowledge of the person of Jesus, especially in his humanity, a time to celebrate the ultimate victory of life over death. It is a time to dance.

Ash Wednesday. This day that begins the Lenten season has the power of linking the past and looking forward to the future. The symbols are strong and clear. It is important that people see the burning of last year’s palms so that there is a link with the past experience of Lenten conversion. (The cyclic nature of human ritual needs to be brought out more clearly.) Bread and wine should be seen and tasted like food for the journey. If possible, the signing with ashes should be done by members of the assembly to each other so that the symbol may be touched, felt, and seen. The liturgy can begin with the proclamation of Joel’s “call to repentance” from within the assembly. The presider enters in silent procession and prostrates himself before the assembly. The members of the assembly kneel to express their need for conversion and repentance. There is time for silent prayer. On rising, the presider invites the community to further reflection, and all sing a selection such as “Grant to us, O Lord” by Lucien Deiss. Following the homily and silent reflection, the presider burns some palm, blesses the ashes, and invites members of the assembly to sign each other as a beginning symbol of solidarity with the Lord and with each other during this Lenten journey. At some point in the liturgy, a single member of the assembly could dance to “Be Not Afraid” as an expression of hope and trust during the Lenten season. People can be drawn more deeply into the truth and beauty of the words of this song and the shared human experience they articulate.

The Sundays of Lent. The Liturgy of the Word during the Lenten season offers many opportunities for creative proclamation. The long gospels of John during Cycle A can be communicated through drama, mime, or dance. A model of this kind of presentation is given in the work of the Fountain Square Fools. This group of professional actors, mimes, and dancers has integrated the gospel story with imagination, energy, and conviction. The group’s portrayal of the parable of the Prodigal is exceptionally powerful.

The following are some suggestions for dance in the Sundays of Lent:

  • 1st Sunday: The theme in all cycles is the temptation of Jesus in the desert. The song, “Jesus the Lord,” can be used as a response to the gospel reading. The slow, reflective antiphon repeated four times can lead the assembly into a simple gesture prayer. The music breathes the name Jesus and the gestures/movement should be an extension of the rhythmic pulse set up by the breathing in and out on the name “Jesus.” (It is important for those who design the movements for the assembly to explore all the possibilities of raising and lowering the hand and arms so that all gestures do not look and feel alike.)
  • 2nd Sunday: The theme in all cycles is the Transfiguration. Michael Joncas’s “On Eagle’s Wings” captures the spirit of this theme of transformation, light, and special protection. This particular piece of music with its intricate rhythms demands certain expertise of the dancers who perform it. If the movement is to be faithful to the form and intent of the musical composition, it is important that the choreographer recognize the complexity of the music and not trivialize it with a too basic movement. The choreography for this piece in the repertoire of the Boston Liturgical Dance Ensemble, for example, includes arabesques on half-pointe, en planche, Soutenu turns, attitudes en promenade, and reverses. These movements are visible to the assembly but need trained dancers to execute them.
  • 3rd Sunday: In cycle A, the gospel is the woman at the well and the liturgy has a strong baptismal theme. John Foley’s “Come to the Water” can be an effective response to the Liturgy of the Word and a bridge to the Liturgy of the Eucharist. In a liturgy at St. James Cathedral in Brooklyn, New York, the Boston Liturgical Dance Ensemble danced with members of the assembly who had been trained the day before. A white cloth twenty yards long was drawn through the building by twenty dancers. Working the cloth in an undulating motion, the dancers gave the impression of water flowing, enveloping the assembly with the symbol. Two dancers near the altar danced more complex movements. The cloth was drawn over them and then placed on the altar to become the altar cloth. The two dancers presented the gifts to the presider and the liturgy continued.

The variety of themes during this season afford many more opportunities for nonverbal expressions. The theme of forgiveness and reconciliation can be embodied through gestures of healing, through enacting the gospel stories of reunion, through expressing the affective dimension of reconciliation in the psalms of the season (Ps. 23, 130, 137, 51, 34). The musical settings of these psalms vary in style and will affect the movement interpretation. Certain musical forms are more conducive to the necessary tension within dance composition. Many of the psalm settings of Peloquin, for example, have a musical tension that elicits an expressive movement response.

Holy Week

Holy Week is clearly the high point of the church’s liturgical year. The celebration of the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus demands a liturgy rich in word and action, mood, and symbol. The Holy Week liturgies need to involve the whole person in prayer. The reality of Passover is incarnated in bodies that move. This movement emerges naturally from the existing ritual and does not have to be superimposed upon it. The following are examples of places in the ritual that calls for “embodiment.”

Passion Sunday. Procession with Palms: (a) the whole community gathers outside the building and enters in procession carrying the palms; (b) with the community already assembled, dancers carrying royal palms enter in rhythmic procession to “All Glory, Laud, and Honor.” The procession uses a simple walking base, punctuated by lunges. The dancers open and close the palms, turn and reach with them. The royal palms have a majesty that conveys the solemnity of the occasion.

Proclamation of the Passion: There have been many different approaches to dramatic presentations of the Passion. One effective presentation that has been used employs a combination of dramatic reading and mime. A long purple cloth is used as the unifying symbol throughout. It functions as the cloth of the Last Supper and delineates the different places: the garden, the house of Annas, Pilate’s palace. It becomes the cloth thrown over Jesus, the cross itself, and then the burial cloth. The narrative is read by trained lectors and the dance/mime is done by dancers and actors. This particular rendering of the Passion has engaged the assembly with the powerful emotion, even though they did not “do” anything.

The Assembly’s Acclamations: The original Palm Sunday event had people in the streets of Jerusalem acclaiming Jesus as King. During the acclamations of the eucharistic prayer, the assembly should be invited to raise their arms with palms in hand, waving them with the words, “Hosanna in the highest, blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord,” and at other points of acclamation.

Holy Thursday. Washing of Feet: An important gesture embodying the gospel which precedes it. This is a case where form and content are inextricably bound. The command of Jesus to “love one another” is tied to a specific symbol of service. This sign should not be neglected for the sake of convenience or speed. It is also important that it be done in such a way that it is a visible sign to the whole assembly.

Preparation of Gifts: The symbols of bread and wine should be given an even greater emphasis on this night. A more elaborate procession may be called for. The symbols must be clearly visible and genuine; bread that is baked by someone in the community, wine held in a lovely carafe.

Transfer of the Eucharist: A simple but powerful movement that can engage people in reverence and prayer.

Stripping the Altar: This silent ritual has an extraordinary psychological effect on people. It can be a striking prelude to the experience of Good Friday.

Good Friday. Prostration: Prostration is an important gesture of penance, humility, and dependence. The silent procession and the prostration are a stark beginning to the Good Friday liturgy.

Orations: “Let us kneel. Let us stand.” The Good Friday liturgy tries to involve the assembly in postures that embody reverence and respect for the solemnity of the celebration. The community should take time to kneel in silent prayer so that the movement “kneel-stand” is expressive of an attitude of reverence and respect rather than an empty gesture of inconvenient effort.

Veneration of the Cross: A movement that involves the whole assembly in procession and praise. It affords the opportunity to express an attitude of loving reverence not only for Jesus’ sacrifice but for all of life which is embraced by the symbol of the cross.

Easter Vigil

On this night the church uses all of its basic symbols to allow a rich experience of new life and hope. The elements of fire, water, bread, and wine become the sacramental manifestation of the presence of God. The form and structure of the celebration, from the lighting of the new fire, the procession of light, the proclamation of the exalted, the stories of God’s activity in the world, the baptismal event, to the new Passover meal that is shared, proclaim the single most important affirmation of the Christian faith. “He is risen. Alleluia!” All of the symbolic elements of this ritual are involved in this proclamation. That is why it is so important on this night to allow the symbols to speak. The following are some suggestions for an effective ritual: Lighting of the Fire: If feasible, begin outside so that all can see the fire. The procession should only begin when all have their candles lit. The final acclamation should be intoned only when all have assembled in the celebration space. During the “Exsultet,” candles should be kept burning. The lights (electric) should be left off until the Gloria.

Liturgy of the Word: In the darkness, except for the light of the paschal candle and any light necessary for the lector, the readings are proclaimed. For the Genesis reading, six lectors are stationed throughout the church, each with an unlit candle. As the story of creation begins, a dancer comes to the paschal candle and draws the light from the candle. He or she then goes to the next reader bringing the light. At the end of the seven days, there are seven lights symbolizing the creation. The positions of these readers around the perimeter of the space can create the impression of being surrounded by creation.

Gloria: Out of the darkness comes a dancing people! As the final response to the Ezekiel reading is being sung, all the candles are lit again. As the Gloria is intoned, the first image the assembly has is women and men dressed in white and gold, dancing to this song of praise.

Alleluia: The first Alleluia of the Easter season should be embodied in a joyful dance around the gospel book. This could be done as a procession with the book or as a special incensation with dancers moving around the book, carrying bowls of incense.

The entire liturgy of Easter cries out for the full participation of the assembly. In the baptismal and Communion rites that follow the proclamation of the Word, the people should be engaged by the symbols in the acclamation: “Christ has died, Christ is risen, Christ will come again! Alleluia!” It is the task of those working with movement and gesture in liturgy to continue to find suitable ways to make the Easter event come to life.

Pentecost

Pentecost gives another opportunity to ritualize the Easter event, but where the focus of Easter is the proclamation “Jesus is risen,” the focus of Pentecost is “Where are God’s people?” This is the celebration of a people filled with the Spirit of God. It is an appropriate time for dance as an expression of the joy, the ecstasy, and the liveliness of the Spirit. There are a number of musical settings appropriate for a festive opening procession. Peloquin’s, “Lord, Send Out Your Spirit,” The Monks of the Weston Priory’s “Spirit Alive,” and Peloquin’s “Praise to the Lord” have all been used by the Boston Liturgical Dance Ensemble as opening processionals to enliven the celebration space on this special feast. In these pieces, red material is used to suggest the tongues of fire and capture the breadth, vitality, and dynamic movement of the first Pentecost.

There are many other celebrations during the year that can call for a special use of dance. Two that have been exceptionally effective for me have been a baccalaureate and a wedding. In the baccalaureate liturgy at Boston College, which takes place every year in a sports complex, the dance brings visual beauty and focus to the celebration that it would lack without it. In alternative spaces for liturgy that is used for very large groups (convention center, stadium) the “secular” can be transformed into the “sacred” through movement and color that provides beauty and graciousness. In the Boston College baccalaureate, the most successful use of dance has been with Peloquin’s Lyric Liturgy and his Lord of Life.

This particular wedding ritual had a special meaning since the bride and groom were both dancers and dance had become the way in which they expressed their faith. Their friends, other dancers, carried floral arches in a procession that could be brought together to make a bridal arch, combined to form the symbol of the ring or simply make a beautiful visual pattern in the front of the space. After the exchange of vows, the dancers returned with the floral arches, dancing to Laetitia Blain’s Song of Meeting, surrounding the newly married couple, finally creating a floral canopy over their heads. Since this was a special dance liturgy, in which the medium of dance was the primary mode of communication, there were many points in the liturgy that were danced. During the water rite, the dancers passed flowers to all in the assembly. The responsorial psalm, Michael Joncas’s “I Have Loved You,” was danced as was his “Praise His Name” for the gospel acclamation. The bride and groom led the assembly in gesture prayer to a chanted “Our Father.” The communion meditation, “Be Not Afraid,” was danced as was the closing hymn “Ode to Joy” (with special wedding lyrics). The entire ritual was a beautifully effective realization of the power of dance to communicate as a symbol in liturgy. Although it may seem to one who has only heard the ritual described that there was “too much” dance, the experience of the people who were present was not that at all. Because of who the couple was, and given the integration of the dances into the flow of the ritual and the participation of the whole assembly in spirit and body, it was a ritual that communicated what it intended, namely, the love of two people as a sign of new life in the church.

A renewed sense of the place of dance in liturgy is a sign of life for many in the church. For others, it is a threatening manifestation of the disintegration of standards and morals. Many will continue to fight vigorously against its inclusion as a valid means of religious expression in liturgical worship. If there is to be a meaningful dialogue between those who approve and those who disapprove, there must be an openness to learn from each other’s perceptions and experiences, but in the last analysis, people must be able to worship their God in ways that honestly express their faith. Environment and Art in Catholic Worship says:

Christians have not hesitated to use every human art in their celebration of the saving work of God in Jesus Christ, although in every historical period they have been influenced, at times inhibited, by cultural circumstances. In the resurrection of the Lord, all things are made new. Wholeness and healthiness are restored because the reign of sin and death is conquered. Human limits are still real and we must be conscious of them. But we must also praise God and give God thanks with the human means we have available. God does not need liturgy; people do, and people have only their own arts and styles of expression with which to celebrate.

Planning Worship around the Church Year

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The church year provides a ready-made pattern for worship. The key seasons are Advent and Easter, which not only mark important events in the life of our Lord but also inform the church’s responses to these events in outward and inward worship. In addition, the church year puts the congregation in tune with a great body of Christian tradition that stretches across the world and back through the centuries.

The church year, also known as the Christian year or the liturgical year, not only has a venerable place in Christian tradition but is an excellent framework around which to organize and plan worship over its course. In many churches today, the celebration of the Christian year is facilitated by the use of a three-year lectionary. This lectionary, indicating Old Testament, Psalm, New Testament, and Gospel readings for each Sunday and festival, not only makes possible the regular systematic reading of substantial portions of the Scripture but provides a biblical framework for the planning of worship.

Cycles of the Year

The Easter Cycle. The church year is composed of two interlocking cycles. The first is the Easter cycle. This begins on Ash Wednesday, the first day of Lent (forty weekdays before Easter), and includes Lent, Holy Week, Easter, and the fifty days following Easter, concluding with the Day of Pentecost. Its principal theological theme is the atonement. Its center is Holy Week with its commemoration of the Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday, the Last Supper on Maundy Thursday, the Crucifixion on Good Friday, and the Resurrection on Easter Day. The fifty days following Easter, originally called the Pentecost, celebrate the new life in the risen Christ, and the Day of Pentecost celebrates the gift of the Spirit to the apostolic church. (Easter is the Sunday following the first full moon of spring, and the other dates are calculated from it.)

The Christmas Cycle. The second cycle is the Christmas cycle. Its theological theme is the Incarnation. The cycle begins with Advent, four Sundays before Christmas (the Sunday closest to November 30), leading into the celebration of Christmas on December 25. The twelve days of Christmas conclude with Epiphany on January 6 (Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night), celebrating the manifestation of Christ. The three great events associated with Epiphany are the revelation of Christ to the magi through the star, the revelation of Christ through the dove and the voice at his baptism, and the revelation of Christ in his turning the water into wine at the wedding at Cana. Today, these are usually celebrated successively on the first three Sundays of the new year.

Sunday. The celebration of Sunday as the Lord’s Day is the central building block of the Christian year. The weekly assembly of the people of God to hear God’s Word, to offer their common prayers, and to celebrate the sacraments lies at the heart of Christian celebration. The biblical word kyriake (Lord’s) occurs only in the phrases “the Lord’s Day” and “the Lord’s Supper.” Sunday is preeminently the Christian day of worship. It is the first day, the day of the creation of light, in Genesis 1. It is the day of Christ’s resurrection and the day of the gift of the Holy Spirit to the apostles on the Day of Pentecost. It is also the eschatological eighth day, the day that has a dawning but no evening, the eternal day of the heavenly Jerusalem. It is this weekly gathering for worship that gives meaning and form to the Christian year.

Seasons of the Year

Advent. The church year is generally considered to begin with Advent, although other days such as Christmas, Easter, the beginning of Lent, or even January 1 have sometimes been considered its beginning. The Advent season is almost archetypically a new year’s festival. It combines joy with penitence, looking back with looking forward, remembrance with hope. It celebrates the coming of Christ—both his coming as a baby at Bethlehem and his coming again in glory “to judge the quick and the dead.” The three great Advent figures are Isaiah, John the Baptist, and the Virgin Mary. The messianic prophecies of Isaiah have long been associated with Advent.

A traditional structure would begin with the eschatological Second Coming on the first Sunday. Isaiah 64:1 (“Oh, that you would rend the heavens and come down … ”) and Mark 13:35 (“Therefore keep watch because you do not know when the owner of the house will come back.”) are typical themes. Bach’s “Sleepers Wake” and Charles Wesley’s “Lo! He Comes, with Clouds Descending” are typical Advent Sunday hymns. On the middle Sundays, the Baptist’s preaching of the coming of the kingdom is the typical theme. “O Come, O Come, Emmanuel” is a hymn commonly sung here. On the fourth Sunday, our attention is turned toward Christmas. Luke’s account of the annunciation to Mary and a hymn-like “I Know a Rose Tree Springing” move the theme toward the Incarnation. In North American culture, it is easy to lose sight of preparing for and looking forward to a festival and to be carried away by its anticipated celebration. Advent is intended to prepare us for Christmas, leading gently into it. Promise of Glory (Catherine Nerney [Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press, n.d.]) contains a number of forms for Advent special services, as well as services for Christmas and Epiphany that keep the boundaries clear while recognizing the impossibility of refusing to live in our own culture.

In many churches, an Advent wreath—an evergreen wreath with four candles in it and sometimes a fifth in the center—is lighted during this season. One candle is lighted on the first Sunday of Advent, two on the second Sunday, and so on. If a fifth candle is used, it is lighted on Christmas. The candles symbolize the light of Christ shining in the darkness.

Christmas and Epiphany. The celebration of Christmas on December 25 and during the twelve days until Epiphany is the climax of the season. Christmas celebrates not just the birthday of the Christ child, but also the Incarnation. The prologue to John’s Gospel, as well as the nativity account in Luke, are proper Christmas readings. John 1 is an appropriate reading and sermon text for one of the Sundays following Christmas. The season ends with the celebration of the baptism of Christ on the Sunday after Epiphany or (in some churches) of Christ’s presentation in the temple on Candlemas (February 2). The baptism of Christ is an obvious occasion to make the principal service a baptismal service. The reading of the Gospel account of our Lord’s baptism provides an occasion for a sermon on baptism as an introduction to the baptismal rite. Epiphany baptisms were the custom of many ancient churches of both East and West, and it is a tradition that can be profitably revived. If Candlemas is observed, the song of Simeon (Luke 2:29–32), with its reference to the light to enlighten the nations, serves as the pivot for a service of light and the refocusing of attention from looking back to Christmas to looking forward to the Crucifixion (Luke 2:34–35).

The baptism of Christ is celebrated on the first Sunday after Epiphany, and other manifestations of Christ on the following Sunday. The Lutheran and Episcopal versions of the three-year lectionary read the account of the Transfiguration on the Sunday before the beginning of Lent, using the references to the Passion and Resurrection in the accounts as a transition into the Easter cycle.

Lent. The Easter cycle celebrates the paschal mystery of the death and resurrection of Christ and the church’s participation in it. The cycle begins with the first day of Lent, Ash Wednesday (a sort of Christian Yom Kippur), on which penitential liturgies reflect our confrontation with our own mortality and our sorrow for sin. Lent, however, is intended to be not a daily repetition of Ash Wednesday but a season of preparation for the joy of Easter. Baptism, the sacrament of the forgiveness of sins and participation in the resurrection of Christ, is the Easter sacrament par excellence, and Lent originated as a season of preparation for baptism. Its themes, therefore, are repentance, spiritual growth, and entering into union with Christ. The temptation of Christ in the wilderness is the traditional theme for the first Sunday in Lent (“Forty days and forty nights, thou wast fasting in the wild”). The most ancient readings for the Lenten season are the Gospel readings for the third, fourth, and fifth Sundays from Year A of the three-year lectionary. These readings are narratives of Jesus and the Samaritan woman, the healing of the man born blind, and the raising of Lazarus. The ancient Lenten lessons provided the texts for the instruction of candidates for Easter baptism and still serve as an introduction to the great theological themes to lead a congregation to renewal at Easter.

Lenten services can be planned to have a distinctive seasonal tone. The use of distinctive Lenten vestments or ornamentation of the church building, the choice of hymns, and the inclusion of penitential elements in the service are all ways of marking the season. Some churches refrain from using flowers during Lent; others use a single budding branch as a sign of spring and resurrection to come. Often, midweek evening services are a part of a congregation’s Lenten plan.

Holy Week. Holy Week is central to the liturgical year. It begins on Palm Sunday. Traditionally, the celebration has had two distinct foci: the Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem, often expressed by a palm procession at the beginning and the distribution of palms to the congregation; and the Passion, marked by the reading of the Gospel account of the Crucifixion from one of the Synoptics and the singing of passion hymns and chorales. The movement from the joy of the Triumphal Entry to the solemnity of the Passion narrative is extremely powerful.

The contrast can be emphasized by gathering for the distribution of palms and the reading of the account of the Triumphal Entry in a place other than the church and proceeding to the church carrying palms. The hymns “All Glory, Laud and Honor” and “Ride On, Ride On in Majesty,” are traditionally associated with the procession. The reading and preaching of the Passion, with appropriate music, then follows in the church.

Maundy Thursday is celebrated as the anniversary of the Last Supper. The celebration of the Eucharist with the reading of the account of the Supper are obvious ways of marking the day. In many places, John’s account of the Last Supper is also read, and a symbolic foot-washing takes place. The calendar ties the Last Supper to the events that followed it—the betrayal, trial, and Crucifixion—and the preacher should do likewise.

Good Friday is the church’s solemn commemoration of the Crucifixion. John’s account of the Crucifixion is the traditional reading. It was for this occasion that Bach composed his St. John’s Passion. In some places, preaching on the Passion for three hours has become traditional. A more liturgical tradition links the reading and preaching of the Passion to devotions before the cross. An excellent modern interpretation of the traditional anthem, “The Reproaches,” is contained in From Ashes to Fire (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1979) and has been reprinted in many other service books.

Prayer vigils, either between the Maundy Thursday and Good Friday services, or from Good Friday until Easter sunrise, are often included in the planning. Increasingly, the ancient tradition of celebrating the Great Vigil of Easter between sunset Saturday and Easter sunrise is being revived. It was at this vigil that the catechumens were baptized, and it concluded with their reception of Holy Communion at the sunrise service on Easter.

The Easter Vigil. The Easter Vigil begins with a service of light at which the Paschal candle is lighted. This burns during worship throughout the fifty days from Easter to Pentecost and is a symbol of the season and our life in the risen Christ. It is also lighted at baptisms and funerals to continue the symbolism. The Word service contains a series of Old Testament readings. The congregation renews their baptismal vows, and baptisms (if there are any) take place. The Vigil concludes with the first service of Easter, traditionally a Communion service, including the reading of Matthew’s account of the Resurrection.

Like the baptism of Christ, the Easter Vigil is a traditional time for baptisms. The Pauline baptismal theology of Romans 6 associates baptism so deeply with the death and resurrection of Christ that its celebration at this time has been a constant feature of Christian tradition. Lent is the time of preparation for baptism, the baptism itself is at Easter, and the fifty days of Easter are a period of rejoicing as the new Christians enter into the risen life.

Easter Season and Pentecost. Alleluia! is the great Easter word, and it is included in hymns and responses throughout the Easter season. The festal adornment of the church building and the joyful tone of the worship continues until Pentecost. The resurrection appearances and the life of the apostolic church as recorded in Acts are the customary Scripture readings and sermon themes. The Ascension is celebrated on the fortieth day after Easter (a Thursday) or the Sunday following, and the gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 2) on the Day of Pentecost, which brings the season to a close. This is a part of the same Easter celebration, and services should be planned integrally for all eight Sundays. Frequently, the Easter character of services is lost after a week or two, so that Pentecost seems an unrelated celebration when it arrives. The early church called the Easter season “fifty days of rejoicing.” It follows the forty days of Lent and provides balance.

Pentecost itself is appropriately observed in many churches as the day for confirmation. It is a celebration of the spread of the church throughout the world in the power of the Holy Spirit, and Christian unity, Christian missions, and evangelism are suitable Pentecost themes. Following the example of Acts 2, the Word is often proclaimed in as many languages as the congregation can muster among its people.

The Season after Pentecost. The season after Pentecost is the season of the life of the Christian church. We ourselves actually live in the season between Pentecost and the Second Advent. Some churches call it “ordinary time,” but it is the time of our redemption. At the beginning of November, the parables of the kingdom become the Sunday readings, and post-Pentecost begins to look forward to Advent. It is not reasonable to plan the entire post-Pentecost season as a unit because it would be too long, but this last part of the season can be so planned (e.g., the outline set forth in Promise of Glory). The last Sunday before Advent is often observed as a festival of the reign of Jesus Christ, which leads easily into the celebration of the final Advent on the next Sunday as the climax to the series of readings about the kingdom of God. In this way, the years are bound together and the cycle begins again.

Using the Christian year as a basis for the planning of worship not only puts the congregation in tune with a great body of Christian tradition stretching all across the world and back through the centuries, but also assures a balanced, integrated, and biblically-based plan, and frees the congregation from the whims and biases of the individual pastor.

The Biblical Background of Holy Week

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In the Western church, Holy Week is not a separate season but a part of Lent. In the Eastern church, Holy Week is a season to itself. Holy Week commemorates the final events that led to the death of Jesus.

The Passion of Christ

The term passion, from the Latin passus, refers to the suffering of Jesus leading up to his crucifixion. This suffering was not only physical but also spiritual in that Jesus was rejected by those unfaithful to the covenant. The Gospels record his agony in prayer in Gethsemane prior to his arrest; Luke writes graphically of his sweat falling to the ground “like drops of blood” (Luke 22:44) as he wrestled in the spirit with the issue of his own death. The “cup” he was asking the Father to remove from him was not simply physical pain but the just and deadly penalty for violation of the covenant—a curse he was to bear on the cross (Gal. 3:10) in order to cancel the sanctions of the old covenant and introduce the life of the new. It is perhaps this struggle in Gethsemane that the author of Hebrews has in mind when he writes, “During the days of Jesus’ life on earth, he offered up prayers and petitions with loud cries and tears to the one who could save him from death, and he was heard because of his reverent submission” (Heb. 5:7). The spiritual warfare of the passion was won in the Garden, and the victory was ratified on the cross.

Thus Jesus bore both the physical agony of the cross and the accompanying spiritual agony of misunderstanding and rejection. The Judean crowds cried out, “Crucify him!” and demanded the release of Barabbas the insurrectionist instead of Jesus. They took from the vacillating Pilate the responsibility for Jesus’ death: “Let his blood be on us and on our children!” (Matt. 27:25). Roman soldiers mocked and abused Jesus as “King of the Jews” (Matt. 27:27–31), while the Jewish authorities insisted, “We have no king but Caesar” (John 19:15). In the end, Jesus’ own disciples deserted him at his arrest (Matt. 26:56), and even the intrepid Peter denied knowing him, just as Jesus had said he would (Matt. 26:34).

It was through Jesus’ suffering that the Resurrection and exaltation were to come. On the Emmaus road, the risen Christ would explain to his disciples that his suffering was a necessary preamble to his entrance into glory (Luke 24:26; cf. Heb. 2:10). Peter, also, would explain to the crowd gathered at Pentecost that, because they had crucified Jesus, “therefore God has made this Jesus … both Lord and Christ” (Acts 2:36). Paul would assure believers that they also would be glorified with Christ, provided they suffer with him (Rom. 8:17–18). The New Testament Epistles in several places refers to the suffering of Christians after the example of Christ (1 Pet. 4:1, 12–13), but this suffering is never physical suffering alone. It is suffering brought about through persecution by those opposed to the gospel, a suffering that is only anticipatory of the greater judgment and suffering to come upon those who persist in their disobedience to the gospel (1 Pet. 4:17).

The drama of the passion has provided a basis for the worship of Christians since the early centuries of the church, giving rise to many traditional observances in both the Eastern and Western churches. The events of Christ’s passion, especially the Crucifixion and entombment, have been the subject of the work of famous painters and sculptors down to modern times (Cimabue, Mantegna, Grünewald, Michelangelo, Tintoretto, Rubens, Rembrandt, James Ensor, Georges Roualt, Graham Sutherland). The faithful have been drawn to dramatic reenactments of the passion (for example, the Oberammergau Passion Play of Bavaria, the Black Hills Passion Play), and composers have created sweeping choral and orchestral settings of the Gospel narratives (Schütz, Bach, Penderecki) African-American spirituals have cast the story in very moving and personal terms.

Palm Sunday

Traditional features of Christian worship associated with Palm Sunday are the procession in commemoration of Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem and the blessing of palm branches. The special observance of Palm Sunday is known to have occurred in Jerusalem as early as the fourth century and in the Western church by the seventh or eighth century. At different times some symbol of Christ has been carried in procession: the Gospel book, a crucifix, the elements of the Eucharist, or even a carved figure seated on a donkey. Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem and his subsequent cleansing of the temple are visual images that have stirred the imagination of Christian worshipers through the centuries as they have taken part in the reenactment of the events joining in procession, waving palm leaves, and singing hosannas.

The story is recorded in all four Gospels (Matt. 21:1–17; Mark 11:1–18; Luke 19:28–48; John 12:12–19), though some details differ from one account to the next. Jesus enters the city riding on a young donkey, which both Matthew and John relate to Zechariah’s prophecy of the king coming in humility (Zech. 9:9); Matthew takes the Hebrew poetic parallelism, donkey and colt or foal, to indicate two animals. Whether one animal or two, the conveyance is covered with the garments of Jesus’ followers, who also spread them in the road before him along with tree branches (John alone calls them “palm branches,” John 12:13).

As Jesus enters the city in this procession, the participants acclaim him by various titles: “the Son of David” (Matt. 21:9), “the King” (Luke 19:38 NASB), and “the King of Israel” (John 12:13). The cry Hosanna! (“Save!” or “Deliver!”) is recorded by Matthew, Mark, and John, whereas Luke records an alternate hymn, “Peace in heaven and glory in the highest!” (Luke 19:38). Notice that “Hosanna” in Hebrew (hoshi‘ah-na’) is related to the name of Jesus (Yeshu‡‘), as both are derived from the Hebrew root denoting deliverance or salvation. Foundational to all the accounts is the cry and acclamation of Psalm 118:

O Lord, save us;
O Lord, grant us success.
Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord.
From the house of the Lord we bless you. (Ps. 118:25–26)

It is often said that the people of Jerusalem welcomed Jesus as King and deliverer, only to turn against him later in the week with the cry, “We have no king but Caesar” (John 19:15). However, a close reading of the Gospels discloses that it is Jesus’ disciples, going before and after him, who acclaim him in a royal manner, and not the crowds. Luke records that the Pharisees complain about Jesus’ disciples, to which Jesus replies, “If they keep quiet, the stones will cry out” (Luke 19:40).

According to Matthew and Luke, Jesus proceeds immediately to drive the traders from the temple area, quoting Isaiah 56:7 and Jeremiah 7:11. In Mark’s account, Jesus inspects the temple, returning to cleanse it the next day (Mark 11:15–17); John, in contrast to the synoptic writers, places this event at the very beginning of Jesus’ ministry in connection with a Passover feast (John 2:13–22).

In the symbolism of Palm Sunday, we see the coming of the sovereign Lord to his people, together with his judgment on religious institutions that have ceased to serve his purposes. As the Great King of the covenant, the Lord is the deliverer or Savior of his people; when he appears, the worshiper cries, “Come and save us” (Ps. 80:1–3). Several of the psalms celebrate the Lord’s entry into the Holy City and sanctuary to assume his dominion (Pss. 24:7–10; 47:6–9; 50:3). But the Great King comes also to judge (Pss. 96:11–13; 98:8–9). The Davidic rulers of Judah, as the earthly vice-regents of Yahweh, were custodians of Solomon’s temple, and several of them acted with zeal as restorers and reformers of the worship on Zion (Asa, 1 Kings 15:11–15; the younger Joash, 2 Kings 12:2–16; Hezekiah, 2 Kings 18:3–6; 2 Chron. 29–31; Josiah, 2 Kings 22–23). After the Babylonian captivity, the faithful longed for “the messenger of the covenant” who would purify the Jewish worship (Mal. 3:1–3). All this forms the background for Jesus’ action as he enters Jerusalem, acclaimed with a royal title, and proceeds to a symbolic act of judgment on the central religious institution of the Judean community—a judgment to be fulfilled in the temple’s destruction within a generation. The Palm Sunday procession is a proclamation that the King has come to reclaim his dominion and restore the true worship of the covenant. Thus the accolades of Palm Sunday are bound to the accusations that follow in the courtyard of the temple.

There is an additional note, however, in the action that fulfills the prophecy of Zechariah and in the cleansing of the temple. Riding into the city on a humble donkey, Jesus confirms that his kingship is not the overbearing and pompous rule of an earthly monarch. Furthermore, as the agent of the sovereign Lord, the one anointed to “preach good news to the poor” (Luke 4:18) takes on the religious establishment that controls the Judean economy through the commerce associated with temple worship. In the ancient world, temples functioned as banks, being considered safe repositories for funds; the Jerusalem temple drew revenue from all parts of the Jewish Diaspora for the maintenance of its operations. Within the temple precincts were concessions that sold animals for sacrifice, and currency exchanges where worshipers traded their Roman coins (which could not be used to buy sacrifices) for special temple coinage. Both of these businesses were highly profitable to the concessionaires, at the expense of the ordinary worshiper. But economic injustice has no place within the covenant community (Deut. 15:4; Isa. 3:13–15; Amos 2:6–7). It was Jesus who had declared, “Blessed are you who are poor, for yours is the kingdom of God” (Luke 6:20), and his cleansing of the temple further demonstrates his identification with the disadvantaged. As a perceived threat to the economic establishment, this act may have been a significant “political” cause of his later arrest and execution.

The Great Triduum (“Three Great Days”)

In the ancient church Christians observed the Holy Week services of Thursday, Friday, and Saturday night (the great “Paschal Vigil”) as one continuous service reenacting the final events of Christ’s life and death preceding the Resurrection. The entries for Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Easter present the biblical background for these feasts. (For details concerning the worship of the “three great days,” see Volume 5, Resources for Services of One Christian Year.)

Maundy Thursday

The special commemoration of Christ’s institution of the Lord’s Supper, or Eucharist, is attested as early as the fourth century. The English name Maundy Thursday comes from the Latin mandatum novum, “a new commandment,” in Jesus’ words to his disciples as he washed their feet on the night of the Last Supper: “A new command I give you: Love one another” (John 13:34). In the Eastern church, the day is known as “Holy Thursday.” As part of the movement for the renewal of the historic liturgy in the twentieth century, many churches have returned to a fuller reenactment of the events of Maundy Thursday. These ceremonies include the “agapē meal,” or Christian love feast (its practice in the early church is suggested by Paul’s correctives in 1 Cor. 11:20–22); the rite of foot washing, symbolic of the “new commandment” (John 13:1–15); the Lord’s Supper itself; and the reenactment of the journey from the upper room to the Mount of Olives and the Garden (Mark 14:26). Even many nonliturgical churches observe the Lord’s Supper in the evening on Maundy Thursday.

Probably no other act of Christian worship has been known by more terms and understood in more ways than the Lord’s Supper; this is due in large part to the New Testament’s own richness of imagery and terminology surrounding the commemoration of Jesus’ action in the upper room. The Lord’s Supper is an ordinance of Christ; Jesus commanded his followers to repeat his action with the words “Do this in remembrance of me” (Luke 22:19). It is the covenant meal; Jesus’ words, “This is my blood of the covenant” (Mark 14:24), speak of the sacrifice that enacts the restored relationship between the Lord and his people. The Lord’s Supper is a communion or participation (koinōnia) in the life of Christ, as represented by the bread and the cup (1 Cor. 10:16–17), a communion not just of the individual worshiper but of the corporate church. The action of the Lord’s Supper is a proclamation of Christ’s victory over sin, a dramatic re-presentation of the redeeming event of Christ’s death (1 Cor. 11:26). The Lord’s Supper is the Eucharist, the “giving of thanks” to the Lord for his gifts of life and salvation, as Jesus gave thanks over the bread and the cup (Mark 14:22–23). Finally, it is a sacramental act, in the sense of an outward symbol or spiritual window through which a deeper reality may be grasped. Because of the wealth of its testimony to the gospel, the Lord’s Supper became the central and distinctive act of Christian worship.

Good Friday

The English name Good Friday may be derived from the expression “God’s Friday,” designating the day observed as the anniversary of Christ’s crucifixion, the decisive event in the plan of God for the redemption of his people. However, as Massey H. Shepherd has commented, the name Good Friday “helps in some way to remind us of the primitive Christian celebration of this day as one of victorious conquest by Christ over sin and death” (The Oxford American Prayer Book Commentary [1950], 156). The Greek church knows the day as “Great Friday.”

Historically, the day has been one of fasting, abstinence, and penance. Customary Latin rites have included the “veneration of the cross,” in which worshipers kiss the crucifix, and the Tenebrae service in the evening, which incorporates the gradual extinction of lights and candles in the church, the service concluding in complete darkness, symbolic of Christ’s death and descent into hades. Another observance associated with the passion of Christ is the “stations of the cross,” a series of devotional acts based on fourteen events from Christ’s condemnation to death and his entombment; the “stations” are represented along the Via Dolorosa in Jerusalem, which annually attracts pilgrims from the Christian world, and in the naves of many liturgical churches. Traditionally, the elements of the Mass are not consecrated on Good Friday nor on the following Saturday. Protestant churches, however, may observe the Lord’s Supper on this day, and a common practice in North America has been for a group of churches in a community to unite in a three-hour service beginning at noon, devotionally rehearsing the events of the day of Jesus’ crucifixion.

The Gospels narrate in detail the events of Jesus’ trial before the Jewish council, his arraignment before Pilate, his rejection by the multitude, his abuse by the soldiers, the carrying of the cross to Golgotha, his crucifixion between two criminals, his words from the cross, his death, and his entombment. In the Gospel records, the day of Jesus’ death occupies a disproportionate amount of a three-year ministry. Indeed, in Mark, it accounts for almost a tenth of the narrative. The Crucifixion, together with the Resurrection, was central in the proclamation of the early Christian preachers. This is clear from the sermons in Acts (Acts 2:23; 3:14–15; 7:52; 8:32–35; 10:39; 13:27–29); Paul, for one, determined to make it the focus of his message (1 Cor. 2:2).

The Gospels’ stress on the events of Christ’s passion and death reflects their origin in the expansion of the early preaching of the church. But whereas the sermons and correspondence of the apostles interpret Jesus’ death through theological statements, the Gospels do so through narrative and dialogue. Developing the account of the Crucifixion in a fairly straightforward way, they allow the reader and hearer to experience the event through the record of even the smallest details. It is this quality of the Gospel narratives that gives them their value in worship. Listening to their story, the believer becomes a participant in the drama through which the Father brings about the achievement of his purposes: the judgment of sin and the creation of the people of the new covenant.

Certain details of the Crucifixion account merit brief discussion. The cross itself (Greek stauros) may not have been the familiar shape of the Latin cross, but rather a vertical stake without a cross-arm (several references in the New Testament mention Christ’s death on a “tree” [Acts 5:30; Gal. 3:13; 1 Pet. 2:24]). Crucifixion was a method of execution favored by Roman authorities for acts of rebellion. As a warning against other would-be disturbers of the peace, it was a form of public torture, in which the victim usually died a slow and agonizing death, as periods of unconsciousness alternated with periods of intense pain. However, Jesus’ death on the cross occurred more quickly than usual. The Jewish authorities did not want those who had been executed to remain on the cross over the Passover Sabbath, so they requested that their legs be broken; this would hasten their death by suffocation since they would not be able to push themselves up in order to breathe. Coming to Jesus, Pilate’s soldiers were amazed to discover that he had already died (John 19:31–33; Matt. 27:50; Mark 15:37).

Of special note are the utterances of Jesus while on the cross. These have traditionally formed part of the basis for Christian worship on Good Friday, as well as a foundation for choral works on the “seven last words of Christ” (Schütz, Haydn, Dubois, or Stainer’s The Crucifixion). Of these utterances, three are of special importance for the theological understanding of the Crucifixion. Jesus cries out, in Aramaic, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (Mark 15:34). Interpreters sometimes take these words to mean that the Father has “turned his back” on the Son so that he might bear the divine wrath, the penalty for mankind’s sin, in utter abandonment. The words, however, are the first line of Psalm 22. Since the Scriptures at that time were not divided into chapter and verse numbers (these came much later), a section of the Bible was identified by its first line. The Gospels probably intend to tell us that Jesus recited the entire psalm, which ends on a note of praise and victory (Ps. 22:22–31). In the Christian proclamation the Cross is a defeat, not for Christ, but for the spiritual enemies of the people of God (Col. 2:8–15; cf. 1 Cor. 2:6–8). On the cross, Jesus willingly gave his life “a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45); he “laid down his life” to take it up again (John 10:17). Thus Jesus’ death is seen as his deliberate choice, as he calls out, “Father, into your hands I commit my spirit” (Luke 23:46), again a quotation from the Psalms (Ps. 31:5). Jesus died on the cross, but the cross did not kill him. He had already yielded up his life in the spiritual struggle of Gethsemane; the cross put the “It is finished” (John 19:30) to the decision he had already made.

At the moment of Jesus’ death, according to Matthew and Mark, “the curtain of the temple was torn in two from top to bottom” (Matt. 27:51; Mark 15:38); Matthew adds that an earthquake occurred, releasing from their tombs “the bodies of many holy people who had died” (Matt. 27:51–53). The Gospels of Luke and John do not record these phenomena, but John in his Revelation tells of a great earthquake when two witnesses are slain and then raised (Rev. 11:11–13) and the dead are judged or rewarded” (Rev. 11:18 ), and the heavenly temple is opened and the ark of God’s covenant revealed (Rev. 11:19). Without prejudicing their historical accuracy, these phenomena in the Gospels are perhaps best taken as word pictures on a par with the symbolic events in the drama of the book of Revelation—images through which the Christian community is expressing its understanding of the meaning of Jesus’ crucifixion. His death “tore the veil” from the sanctuary, revealing the true and “heavenly” presence of the covenant God in the midst of his faithful saints. Earthquake and darkness (Matt. 27:45; Mark 15:33; Luke 23:44) are biblical images of divine judgment (Ps. 97:2–5); judgment occurs at the Cross, or rather the Cross exposes the judgment already made according to whether a person rejects or confesses Jesus as the Son of God (John 3:18–21). Significantly, a Roman centurion standing guard at the cross makes exactly this confession at the moment of Jesus’ death: “Surely he was the Son of God!” (Matt. 27:54; Mark 15:39; cf. Luke 23:47).