The church’s uneasiness about including dance in worship stems, in part, from the dualism that equates the body with evil and the spirit with good. Worship demands physical and spiritual involvement that can transcend this dualism.
In the beginning, there was dance. Before Israel, there was dance. Before Jesus’ birth, there was dance. Before the writing of the Scriptures, there was dance. Before words there was dance. “Dance” has been described and performed in many different ways from one worshiping community to another throughout history. Here I will examine dance historically, practically, and theologically by addressing some common questions, concerns, and opinions about this most ancient form of worship.
Why Should Dance Be Part of Christian Worship?
Many people fear the idea of dance in worship because their visions of “dance” include the awkward stumbling of children’s dance classes, memories of dance forced upon them by overzealous physical education teachers, or even the experience of watching poorly executed dance within the context of worship. The word dance is often accompanied by feelings of embarrassment and discomfort. Here I will propose helpful, natural, and appropriate ways in which dance can be utilized within worship.
I define dance in a more general way than perhaps many have in the past. Some may be surprised to hear that they are already dancing in worship! When arms are raised in prayer, when we make the sign of the cross to remember our baptisms, or when we kneel to express humility, we are participating in a form of liturgical dance. Any expressive movement of our bodies within worship can be considered, in a general sense, liturgical dance.
In the beginning, God moved over the waters and created. If we accept the definition of dance as expressive movement, we need no further proof of the importance of dance. Expressive movement is an integral part of the human worship experience.
To witness the natural human response of dancing, we need only look at our children. Even before a child has mastered speech, he or she will likely whirl and jump in dancing movements. In responding to the wonders of creation, which unfold daily in the life of a young child, it is probably not words but movement and music which come most easily and naturally as a response. In the perception of many children, all of nature seems to sing and dance.
Dance was one of the first forms of worship for humankind, and it was also one of the first forms of Christian worship, inherited from the Jews. Dance in worship is part of our Christian heritage. It was practiced earlier than our creeds, most of our hymnody, and even our naming of God as Triune. Yet, while historical precedent goes far toward justification of a practice, I will not use that argument for the continuance of dance. As with any religious practice, we should examine our reasons for maintaining or discarding it regardless of historical precedent. We must judge dance using the criteria we use to judge all practices we call “Christian”: does it enrich our worship, carry spiritual meaning for us today, and reflect the good news of grace and forgiveness we have through Christ?
As a child, I looked around at the stony faces of adults in church pews and wondered how they could sing. “We praise Thee, we bless Thee, we worship Thee, we glorify Thee, we give thanks to Thee for Thy great glory” with faces and bodies absolutely devoid of expression! When I could understand the message these words were intending to proclaim I was at first puzzled, then amused, and finally saddened and frustrated. The love and grace we proclaimed were incredible; the God we worshiped, awesome. How could these people have the restraint to keep from dancing, shouting, embracing, or at least smiling?! I could not understand or accept a response limited to reluctant vocal chords.
Why should we embrace dance as a valid, even necessary part of our worship? Because expressive bodily movement is fundamental to our humanity. When we hear the gospel of Jesus the Christ, how can we help but express our joy with all of our being? The question now becomes one of form.
How Can We Dance Appropriately in Worship?
Some think that no dance is appropriate in worship and consequently use a very narrow definition of dance. Others feel that only congregational movement is legitimate. Some insist that any spontaneous movement by anyone at any time during worship is acceptable and a gift of the Spirit, while others insist dance should be done only by those who are properly trained.
By defining dance as I do, it becomes an action done by nearly all worshiping people and includes a wide variety of things. Different forms of dance are appropriate in different settings. Here I will mention a number of specific forms dance can take, some of which are not acceptable in every congregation or in every worship setting:
1. Common Worshiping Movements. These movements include special postures of praise or reflection (e.g., kneeling, raised arms, folded hands, bowed heads, and embracing) in the name of Christ. Unlike simple walking, standing, or sitting, these movements are done not merely for the practical reason of moving from point A to point B so the service may continue, but they are done by the individual to express something specific and meaningful about his or her faith. Under this definition, one who presides at a worship service does a considerable amount of dancing.
2. Communal Movement. This includes movement shared by an entire congregation which helps to emphasize equality and community among the worshipers. The movements generally resemble simple folk dances, if they are structured at all. The movements of charismatic congregations come under this heading, where the movements are extemporaneous and unrestrained. This form of “dance” is difficult to classify, as it may be done by many or only a few within a congregation; and whether it promotes unity or equality may be debated. Historically, communal movement has been accompanied by singing or chanting. The most common forms are circular and processional.
3. Fine Art Dance. This is performed by one or more dancers with technical training in dance and a sensitivity to liturgical practice. This involves the community in a less direct manner. These dancers help to set the mood for a community’s worship, using their particular gifts to express the community’s praise, repentance, gratitude, sorrow, or joy. It is more refined and ordered, using instrumental accompaniment more often than vocal accompaniment.
4. Mime and Clowning. While these expressions of the Christian message fall under our definition of dance as expressive movement, they should be seen as separate expressions of worship and faith. Confusion results when these things are lumped together with liturgical dance in the forms of communal or fine art dance. While all three are expressive movements, they are very different and should be studied separately.
5. Drama. This too deserves a classification all its own. While drama involves much expressive bodily movement, it is confusing to speak of it as dance.
In what form then, should dance be a part of worship? I consider any of these forms appropriate as long as it is done in the proper setting and with willing participants. The choreography must fit the occasion and contribute to a worship experience that enriches the faith of all involved. Where it is possible, communal movement is a wonderful vehicle for enriching the worship of a congregation. It beautifully illustrates our oneness as the body of Christ. More realistic, however, is the performance of fine art dance. In twentieth-century America, this form, in most instances, best expresses our cultural identity. Dance is no longer a part of our shared communal identity, woven into our culture as it once was through folklore, recreation, a celebration of life events, and natural cycles. If the dance is properly done, the dancers do in fact dance for the whole congregation. The more experienced the dancers are with both dance and liturgy, the more naturally this bond is formed.
If Dance Was Once Part of Christian Worship, Why Did It Not Continue?
The debate over dance and what forms are appropriate within the context of Christian worship has gone on since the church’s first days.
The Old Testament references to dancing make clear that dance was inseparable from Jewish worship. J. G. Davies tells us: “The religion of ancient Israel was without question a dancing one” (J. G. Davies, Liturgical Dance: An Historical, Theological and Practical Handbook [London: SCM Press, 1984], 96). Dance for Israel was a sacred expression of faith, one worthy of heaven itself. Daniels writes, “The idea of heavenly beings encircling the throne of God and singing his praise goes back to the Talmud, where dancing is described as being the principal function of the angels” (Marilyn Daniels, The Dance in Christianity, A History of Religious Dance through the Ages [Rams, N.J.: Paulist, 1981], 18).
As Christians considered the “new covenant” in Jesus the Christ, many forms of Jewish worship, including dance, were adopted as a natural part of early Christian worship.
The string of dancing prophets continues with Jesus, as described in the Acts of John. The often violent opposition to dancing by the Church Fathers throughout the centuries has made us forget the significant role of the dance in the life of the early Christians. (Walter Sorrel, The Dance through the Ages, [New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1967], 19)
The Acts of John (c.e. 120), an apocryphal writing, describes dancing at the Last Supper. The disciples gather around Jesus and perform a circle dance, with Jesus speaking the words, “Whoso danceth not, knoweth not the way of life. Now answer thou to my dancing” (Sorrel, Dance through the Ages, 20–21; Daniels, Dance in Christianity, 14).
Eusebius tells of the worship of the Therapeuts, which consisted of an all-night festival, including sacred dancing: They all stand up in a body and in the middle of the banqueting-place they first form two choroi, one of the men and the other of women, and a leader and conductor is chosen for each, the one whose reputation is greater for a knowledge of music; they then chant hymns composed in God’s honor in many meters and melodies, sometimes singing together, sometimes one chorus beating the measure with the hands for the antiphonal chanting of the other, now dancing to the measure and now inspiring it, at times dancing in procession, and at times set-dances, and then circle-dances right and left. (Sorrel, Dance through the Ages, 20)
Throughout the ages many leaders of the church have loved and promoted dance as a form of worship, defending it against many false perceptions. In the second century, Lucian of Samasta called dance “an act good for the soul, the interpretation of what is hidden in the soul” (Ronald Gagne, Thomas Kane, and Robert Ver Eecke, Introducing Dance in Christian Worship [Washington, D.C.: The Pastoral Press, 1984], 39). In a late fourth-century sermon on the text of Luke 7:32, Ambrose, the Bishop of Milan, gives this defense of dance: The dance should be conducted as did David when he danced before the ark of the Lord, for everything is right which springs from the fear of God. Let us not be ashamed of showing reverence which will enrich the cult and deepen the adoration of Christ. For this reason the dance must in no wise be regarded as a mark of reverence for vanity and luxury, but as something which uplifts every living body instead of allowing them to rest motionless upon the ground or the slow feet to become numb.… This dance is an ally of faith and an honoring of grace. The Lord bids us dance. (Daniels, Dance in Christianity, 18–19)
There are numerous references to dance as a beneficial and welcome part of the liturgy in the early church, including those from Gregory of Nazianzus, Bishop of Constantinople, Basil the Great (334–407), Bishop of Caesarea, Jerome (340–407), Ambrose (who requested that persons about to be baptized approach the font dancing), Hippolytus, and Clement, among others. These people judged dance according to its place in Scripture and tradition and encouraged sacred dance as an acceptable, even necessary form of worship and praise.
The first limiting factor for dance was space since Christians met (often secretly) in private homes. In days when Christians were persecuted and driven into hiding, dance was limited for practical purposes.
Official prohibitions against dancing began for a variety of reasons. When people were converted to Christianity from other religions, they sometimes wished to bring with them the dances of their former religions. This was troubling to the early church leaders and led to a fear of dance becoming a pagan intruder into Christianity. Not all of these dances borrowed from other religions lent themselves well to the purpose of expressing the Christian faith.
Some early church leaders also tried to prohibit dancing in order to set Christianity apart from Judaism. For this reason, many Jewish practices were “spiritualized.” Christian practices may also have fallen victim to spiritualization due to the Hellenistic dualism of flesh and spirit, body and soul which was a part of the culture into which Christianity came.
Under Constantine dance faced another obstacle. While Christianity was made the state religion and grand, ostentatious worship spaces were built, a wedge was driven between clergy and laity. Participation of the laity in worship, especially in the form of dancing and singing, was discouraged.
Dance nevertheless continued. Some of the most well-known dances were the “Dance of Death” and the “Mozarabe.” When plagues swept through Europe, touching the lives of all (especially the Black Death, 1347–1373), peasants believed that if they could catch the devil (who caused this terrible malady), they could drive him off. In the Dance of Death, this was symbolically done.
The Mozarabe was a seventh-century dance where a wooden arc of the Testament was carried through the cathedral in procession with eight boys dressed as angels, dancing and singing. In 1439 it was forbidden by Don Jayme de Palafox, the Archbishop of Seville. The dance was so beloved that the people of Seville collected money and sent the young dancers to Rome to dance before Pope Eugenius IV, who responded, “I see nothing in this children’s dance which is offensive to God. Let them continue to dance before the high altar” (Daniels, Dance in Christianity, 22–23).
The reaction of church officials to dancing appears to be a subjective thing throughout the church’s history. In 539 the Council of Toledo condemned dancing in church processions in Spain and dancing in churches during vigils on saints’ days. In 633 the Council of Toledo forbade the Festival of Fools with its singing and dancing. In 678 the Council of Toledo suggested that the Archbishop Isidore of Seville compose a ritual with much-sacred choreography (Gagne, et al., Introducing Dance in Christian Worship, 82; Daniels, Dance in Christianity, 22). Many such examples can be found throughout the history of the church.
Where Do We Go from Here?
Dance began as an expression of the faith of common people as inherited from the Jews and was used to express faith through the centuries despite the warnings and prohibitions of the church hierarchy. The rationale for these prohibitions ranged from legitimate concerns about inappropriate practices making their way into Christian worship to clericalism to confusion between sensuality and sensuousness.
Sensuality arises when the body is objectified and is thus stripped of its sacramental meaning. Sensuousness is a natural and good aspect of being human that needs to be recognized in our worship. We cannot worship as disembodied spirits. James Nelson writes:
Because the human body is vitally and spontaneously sexual, many Christians in their dualistic alienation have been offended by the radical implication of the incarnation.… The Victorian within still winces at the thought that the incarnation might be “a tale of the flesh.” (James B. Nelson, Embodiment: An Approach to Sexuality and Christian Theology [Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1979], 74)
Why is dance not a more widely used expression of worship today? If we hesitate to use dance but not song because we feel one form of worship has more historical precedent, we must look more closely at our history. And if dance is omitted from worship solely out of our fear of causing someone to notice the beauty of the human body and of its movement, we need to confront our own fears and ask whether they are valid reasons for prohibiting someone’s worship of God. Deiss writes, “[Humans are] not only spirit, but also flesh. Our creator has given us bodies endowed with beauty and grace, and expects us to use them—not as a hindrance in our progress toward [God], not as “weapons of iniquity” in the cause of sin, but rather as “weapons of justice for God” (Rom. 6:13). It is, therefore, natural that the inner prayer of the soul express itself outwardly through the body.” (Lucien Deiss and Gloria Gabriel Weyman, Dancing for God [Cincinnati: World Library of Sacred Music, 1965], 3)
Worshiping as whole people should not frighten us. We should, in fact, look for ways in which we can “offer our bodies as a living sacrifice, holy and pleasing to God” (Rom. 12:1). Our worship should incorporate all of our being: our voices, our minds, our eyes, our ears, our hands, and our feet. Worship cannot be restricted to one day per week and certainly should not be restricted to watching the show in the chancel. Jay Rochelle writes: Dance in church still seems offensive to many not only because of the focus of the human body, but because of the active nature of that body as instrument of worship. Our sense of the passive, even quietistic, uses of the body as receptor may block us from seeing the body active in offering, thanksgiving, and praise. (Jay C. Rochelle, “The Contemplative Ground of Craft,” NICM Journal [September 1977])
Our liturgy does not occur in a vacuum, it reflects the whole of our Christian life. If we will greet one another in the name of friendship, why do we hesitate to greet others in the name of Christ? If we will leap for joy when the Chicago Cubs hit a home run, why will we not leap for joy at the good news of Jesus the Christ? And if we feel the unquenchable impulse to dance, as Gene Kelly declared in “Singing in the Rain,” shall we not dance also for our God?