One way of singing hymns creatively involves singing in canon. This article defines what a canon is and how it can be used to foster imaginative congregational singing.
Canons are now appearing frequently in the new hymnals and materials related to congregational singing. There is a resurgence of interest in this age-old system of organizing part-singing. The canonic principle has been a part of our musical tradition for over 700 years, and most of us have had experience performing and hearing canons in both instrumental and choral music. Imagine life without the Pachelbel canon, “Row, Row, Row Your Boat,” or “Three Blind Mice.” There is a surprising versatility in canons that ranges from the seemingly simple stringing together of a half-dozen notes or so to very complex arrangements that pose riddles to be solved.
Nature and History of Canons
A good working definition of a canon is “imitation of a complete subject by one or more voices at fixed intervals of pitch and time” (Don Michael Randal, ed., The New Harvard Dictionary of Music [Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986], 128). The term canon also refers to law; canons have always been designed so that the harmonic and rhythmic logic works as succeeding voices imitate the original voice. The challenge to a composer of a canon is to create a good melody that can stand alone, but then can be recombined with itself at certain points to produce an agreeable and logical harmony. A good canon is a balanced affair, with melodic sensibility and harmonic logic.
The earliest extant canon is the polished and elegant “Sumer is icumen in.” It dates from around 1250, has a refined four-part structure, and is designed to be performed over a two-voice ostinato (or pes, “foot”). This canon is of English origin. Because of the preference for thirds and sixths and a major-like tonality, it has been very popular in modern times. It is one of those pleasant cases of a “first” in music that can also lay claim to being a genuine masterpiece. Students of music history and early music performing groups regularly perform this canon. The text deals with the joys of spring and is written in early English.
Since the thirteenth century, the canon has had an influence in every subsequent century. Almost every major composer has produced canons of one kind or another. The canon has been used as an academic exercise, with entire textbooks being devoted to it alone. Canonic writing is regarded as a first step in the study of counterpoint. An intellectual character dominates many canons, but the simpler canons must still exhibit good melodic and harmonic principles.
For our purposes, we are dealing with simple canons that are imitated at the unison or the octave, and with canons in which all rhythmic values remain the same. These are the vocal canons that have a social interest—that is, they are canons for a group of singers to perform. There is an English tradition running from the sixteenth through the nineteenth centuries of singing “catches” and “glees,” as canons and rounds were once called. These lively (and often bawdy) canons were performed in men’s clubs and were quite popular. Some of these compositions were quite demanding vocally, with ranges of a twelfth not uncommon.
A colonial American variant of this English tradition may be observed in the visual frontispiece of The New-England Psalm Singer of William Billings (1770; in The Complete Works of William Billings. Vol. 1: The New-England Psalm Singer, ed. by Karl Kroeger [Boston: The American Musicological Society & the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1981]). Here we have six men and a leader seated at a table, singing from tune-books. The six-voice canon is printed in a circle as a musical decorative wreath. In this visual presentation, we may observe the seriousness of purpose and the idea of social singing. Note the presence of a leader. Billings wrote only four canons, and all are presented in this volume. One canon, “When Jesus Wept,” is remarkable for its hauntingly beautiful modal melody. It is a canon that deserves modern attention.
One canon, the Tallis Canon, has been included for many years in hymnals of all sorts. It first appeared in print in the metrical Psalter of Archbishop Matthew Parker in 1567 (The Whole Psalter Translated into English Metre [London: Matthew Parker, 1567]; for a full and interesting account, consult Leonard Ellinwood, “Tallis’ Tunes and Tudor Psalmody,” Musica Disciplina 2 (1948): 189–195). The conventions of that time had the leading melody in the tenor and the other three parts providing a suitable harmony. In the 1567 version, the tune shows a canonic relationship between the tenor and soprano (treble). In our modern hymnals, this arrangement has been switched to allow our preference for the soprano to initiate the melody. The Parker Psalter repeats each two-measure unit, but our modern versions omit this practice. The original hymn, “God Grant We Grace, He Us Embrace,” has been abandoned in most modern hymnals for “All Praise to Thee, Our God, This Night.”
The canon is rich in symbolism. As an example of wholeness, each voice is fully individual, yet in combination with the other voices an ordered and meaningful pluralism emerges. The sum of the individual parts is the result of a harmonious working together and of greater order and design. In performing canons, the circle is emphasized, and the very term round indicates this quality. The individuality of each voice is heightened not by isolation, but by cooperation and contrast. In performance, one hears the anticipatory refrain, as well as the echoing of the melody just completed when the canon gets underway. Finally, canons may be infinite in that they are designed to operate indefinitely. Of course, there is no practicality in this, but the concept is there and has an attractive subtle implication.
Performing Canons
Turning now to the practical matter of performing canons in a church setting, three categories suggest themselves: (1) informal “sings,” (2) congregational performance of canons, and (3) choir performance of canons.
Informal Sings. In the first category, informality prevails, and the best advice is to make certain that the starting pitch is more or less accurate. Picking a pitch out of the sky can lead to some uncomfortable ranges and can jeopardize the overall effectiveness. On the other hand, impromptu singing of a well-known canon can be very meaningful in a prayer or meditation group, and as long as the pitch is reasonably set, the canon will work its own charm.
Congregational Performance. The second category deals with using canons in congregational singing. A congregation that is accustomed to a song leader has a certain advantage in that the song-leader instructs, rehearses, and directs the whole enterprise. The song leader divides the congregation into various parts and then proceeds to perform the canon. What we have here is an expanded version of the situation depicted in The New-England Psalm Singer. In a congregation of men and women, one can expect the melody to be sung in octaves, creating a richness of timbre and range as the canon unfolds in its full form of all parts singing. Depending upon the proficiency of the congregation, the song leader can distribute the parts in quartets, trios, and so on, so that there is a situation in which each member of the congregation is surrounded with parts leading and parts following him or her.
A congregation that does not utilize a song leader has a unique challenge in singing canons. In this case, the music director must work within the traditions of the congregation and use resourcefulness to introduce the concept. At some point, the congregation will need instruction and rehearsal for new materials. Assuming that there is a choir, one approach is to have the choir strategically placed throughout the congregation, reinforcing each section of the canon. The choir provides the leadership necessary for encouraging each designated section of the congregation. The conclusion of canons is crucial, and care must be taken to avoid a wilted last entry.
Choir Performance. In the third category, using canons for the choir, there is a great opportunity for creativity. No hard and fast rule says that sopranos must sing the opening statement, or that tenors must then respond with the second entry. Adjusting the entries for the best effect can draw upon the resources of the choir. Singing the entire canon through in unison (and octaves) is a common practice for choirs performing canons. The opening of the canon requires strength and certainty, and the ending of the canon is critical so that the piece concludes with a balance of strength and clarity. Some canons are designed to end at a certain designated spot so that the “stringing-out” effect is avoided. Singing canons is excellent practice for choirs that are not too proficient in contrapuntal music.
With the long and distinguished history of the canon in our musical tradition, it is refreshing to see evidence of continued use of this device. With renewed attention to the canon, we can anticipate invigorated congregational singing; since the canon is the traditional gateway to counterpoint of all kinds, we can expect church choirs to enjoy and profit from singing canons. There is a rich repertoire already in existence, and this repertoire and tradition will stimulate the creation of new materials. We salute those creative musicians of the thirteenth century that laid the ground rules and those musicians in subsequent centuries that have given us a good working corpus of canons.