Calvinism

Armenian Controversy

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Differences in doctrine developed similarly in the Netherlands. The Dutch provinces had won their independence when a truce was agreed upon with Spain in 1609. In spite of the struggle for existence, the country had prospered. Manufacturing and commerce made great strides, and populations increased. Dutch sailors rivaled the English on all the seas. Dutch Protestantism was of the Calvinistic type, and Calvinistic doctrine was taught in the universities. In 1602 Jacob Arminius became a professor at the University of Leyden. A colleague charged him with being lukewarm in his attitude toward the doctrine of predestination and an investigation followed. This aroused discussion and a national synod was planned to settle the controversy when Arminius suddenly died. His sympathizers then issued a Remonstrance, appealing to the provincial governments of Holland and Friesland for toleration. In their statement, they opposed five items among the famous five points of Calvinism. They modified the theory of unconditional election of certain human beings by the sovereign will of God by saying that election was based on the divine foreknowledge of a person’s faith. They asserted that the atonement of Christ was not limited to the few elect but was universal in its scope for all who would accept it. Instead of affirming human helplessness, they believed in spiritual regeneration. Over against the doctrine of divine grace as irresistible, they set the resistibility of salvation. And where the Calvinist insisted on the perseverance of the elect, Arminians were doubtful about perseverance. At last in 1618 the long-awaited Synod met at Dort. Eighty-four theologians and numerous secular officials composed its membership. Only three Arminians were present, and they were dismissed after a plea for toleration.

Impact: The Synod published ninety-three canons and endorsed the Belgic Confession of 1561 and the Heidelberg Catechism. The Remonstrants were required to accept the canons, give up their churches, and retire from the country. After a few years, milder counsels prevailed and some of them found a place again in the Dutch churches. The decisions of the Synod were accepted by Reformed churches elsewhere.

Scottish Reformation

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In Scotland prior to the Reformation immoral conduct among the clergy was worse than in most countries. In time they provoked a reaction in Scotland as elsewhere. Protestant influences began to seep through from the Continent by way of trade routes and the universities. Books and pamphlets, ballads and plays, teaching and preaching, had each sown seeds of religious revolt. Parliamentary prohibitions of Protestant literature were ineffective. Patrick Hamilton, a university-bred Scotch noble, gave his life for the faith. George Wishart was another convert who preached until he too was seized, tried, and burned. A companion of Wishart on his preaching tours was John Knox. Born in Haddington, Scotland, and educated at the University of Glasgow, Knox was originally a Roman Catholic priest. In 1543 he converted to Protestantism and spread the message of the Reformation until his capture by the French in 1547 when they attacked Saint Andrews. He was forced to labor in a French galley for almost two years until Edward VI, the king of England, secured his release. He moved to England and became the royal chaplain in 1551. When Catholic Queen Mary took the throne in 1553 he fled to Frankfurt and later to Geneva. Here he met Calvin and began studying his doctrines. He preached widely throughout Europe for a number of years until his return to Scotland in 1559. He denounced the Catholic Church and Scotland’s Catholic regent, Mary of Guise. He supported the Protestant revolt against the regency, a hopeless cause until England’s Elizabeth I, who had succeeded her half-sister Mary, agreed to support them. After the death of Mary of Guise, the Protestants took control of the Scottish government, and Knox’s Confession of Faith was adopted by the Parliament. Control was lost briefly upon the return of yet another Catholic Mary, Mary Stuart, who reigned from 1560 to 1567. She had Knox arrested for treason, although he was later acquitted. He spent his remaining years after Mary’s death preaching and writing.

Impact: From Scotland, Calvinism was spread around the world through aggressive mission activities.

Toplady, Augustus Montague

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Augustus Montague Toplady (1740-1778) was born in Surrey, England to an affluent family. He visited Ireland at the age of 16 and converted to Christianity at a service held in a barn – an experience he considered both ironic and providential since he had felt no spiritual yearnings at the grand cathedral his family attended. He was ordained to the ministry in the Church of England in 1762 and in 1768 he became vicar of Broadhembury, a position he held until his death. An advocate of Calvinism he came into frequent conflict with John Wesley. His volume of Psalms and Hymns for Public and Private Worship was published in 1776 and included the classic “Rock of Ages.” He attained great influence in his brief life and many of his hymns are sung to this day.

Arminius, Jacob

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Jacob Arminius (1560-1609) was a Dutch theologian. Arminius studied and traveled widely during the years prior to his ordination in 1588. After receiving his doctorate he became a professor of theology at the University of Leyden. During this time Calvinism was made the official religion in Holland. He attempted to clarify Calvinism, especially with regard to the perception that humans were nothing more than puppets in the hands of God. He called for a national synod but died before this could take place. His theology, as well as his followers, were later condemned at the Synod of Dort in 1618. His beliefs continue to thrive in denominations like the Church of the Nazarene and other holiness groups.