Writing music for orchestral instruments requires knowing about the unique design and sound of each instrument. This article examines each major type of orchestral instrument, outlining the basic features of each and suggesting ways of effectively arranging music for each.
Brass Instruments
Fear not! Band and orchestral instruments can be understood by the church musician. Here are some brief discussions and examples of what the brass instruments can do. Of course, there is plenty of good published music. And, of course, not every church musician is an arranger, but there are occasional times when a special hymn or piece of music without published parts needs some instrumental parts. Here’s how to do it.
Brass Groups. Having secured enough funds for a good ensemble, you need to know exactly what forces are available to you. The most common brass ensemble is the brass quartet. This ensemble usually consists of two trumpets and two trombones. A less common grouping uses two trumpets, horn in F (French horn), and trombone. If you are buying parts, be careful! Some arrangements use the trombone on the tenor line, some use the horn on the tenor line. Many arrangements come with a part for horn and the exact same part transposed for trombone. (More about transposition later.) If you hire a quartet that plays regularly as a group, make sure you find out what instruments they use. You can be sure they will have a sufficient amount of material for preludes and postludes. Most liturgical publishers have a good selection of hymn concertatos and service music using brass instruments. Don’t be surprised if a musician walks in with a tuba. A tuba or a bass trombone can play the second (lower) trombone part.
A brass quintet consists of two trumpets, horn in F, and two trombones (or trombone and tuba). Although music exists for brass sextet and brass choir, this article does not have sufficient space for a discussion of this group. So, if this Easter is your first attempt at using brass, start small!
Individual Instruments. The trumpet works well as a solo instrument or in an ensemble. Most trumpets are B trumpets. Like many band-orchestra instruments, the B trumpet is what is known as a transposing instrument. Rather than attempting to explain why some instruments are transposing instruments and some are not (like flute, violin, and oboe), it is important to explain only how they work. Think of it this way: when a B trumpet player sees treble clef middle A on the music and presses the proper number of valves to play treble clef middle A, what really sounds is treble clef middle G. Likewise, if you want the trumpet to play C, you must write D. Technically, we say a B trumpet sounds a major second lower than written.
Just when you thought it was safe to start writing parts, be aware that occasionally you may buy a set of brass parts that includes C trumpet parts. The C trumpet is a non transposing instrument. When the organ plays G, the C trumpet also plays G, and the pitches match. If you find yourself with C trumpet parts and a B trumpet player, you will have to transpose the part as mentioned above. There are professional musicians who own C trumpets. Once again, if you are hiring a professional brass group, ask if the trumpets prefer B or C parts. Professional trumpet players may frequently play B trumpet parts on their C trumpet (or vice versa), transposing at sight. If your trumpeters are not comfortable doing that, make sure the music matches the trumpet!
Don’t forget key signatures. An organ part in the key of F major means the B trumpet must play in the key of G major. Never use a transposed part in a liturgy without rehearsing it first. When writing trumpet parts, use the soprano voice as a guide. Trumpet parts are always written in the treble clef. Think of your choir sopranos—high F and G start them shaking, high A and B are pretty chancy, and high C and above are best left to the professionals. A good, competent professional trumpet player is expected to play high F, G, A with no problem. High school players may find this a bit challenging. Likewise, sopranos and trumpets should stay away from notes much below middle C. The lowest possible note on a B trumpet is low F#. The very bottom notes should be avoided. The following diagram shows the possible range and the desired range:
The trombone presents fewer problems. It is a non transposing instrument. The bass clef note on the organ is the same bass clef note for the trombone. Trombone parts should always be written in bass clef. Just as the trumpets correspond to the soprano and alto voices, the trombones are the tenor and bass voices of the brass ensemble. As with all brass instruments, there is no limit theoretically to the uppermost note they can play. But once again, think of your choir tenor section. It is best not to write trombone parts higher than The lowest possible note is but should be avoided. Some trombonists play a bass trombone. A bass trombone has the added possibility of playing lower notes due to the addition of a special attachment to the instrument. Tuba parts can be played on the bass trombone; you may need to alter a few pitches below. Here are the possible and desired ranges of the trombones:
The French horn, or horn in F, is a transposing instrument. The horn sounds a perfect fifth lower than written. When the horn sees and plays middle G, what really sounds is middle C. In order for a horn to sound middle F, you must write high C. The horn is usually assigned the tenor line in brass music. Horn parts are always written in treble clef. Remember your key signatures again when transposing! When the organ is in the key of C, the horn is in the key of G. The horn has a wide range but sounds best in parts written from low F to high E.
As a special aside to those directors of music more comfortable with brass instruments, a French horn quartet is a marvelous alternative to the traditional brass quartet. There are plenty of published fanfares, preludes, and postludes.
As a review, let’s take the tune duke street as found in any SATB setting and arrange it for a brass quartet of two B trumpets, horn in F, and trombone. The two trumpet parts become the soprano and alto parts. In treble clef, we use the key of E major (one whole step up from the organist’s D major). We transpose up a whole step or a major second. Thus the organ copy looks like this and the trumpet part looks like this: The horn plays the tenor line. Although the organist’s copy is in the bass clef, we need to write the horn parts in treble clef. Think of adding one sharp to or subtracting one flat from the key signature when transposing horn parts. The key of D (two sharps) becomes the key of A (three sharps) for the horn. Thus for the organ becomes for the horn. The trombone is a non transposing instrument and plays the bass line exactly as it appears in the hymnal:
Do not feel that the brass must play on every musical item within the liturgy. At least you now have the capability of providing music for every acclamation and hymn … and perhaps a recessional; since the players are there, you might as well use them.
Woodwind Instruments
If brass instruments provide power and strings add warmth, the woodwind family of instruments can be thought of as adding color and agility to the overall sound of the choir and accompanying instruments. The woodwind family is a large one, and like most families, contains some strange relatives and adopted members. Here is an overview of the woodwinds:
• Flute and piccolo, alto flute and bass flute
• Clarinet (B Soprano) and E clarinet, alto clarinet, bass, and contrabass clarinets
• Oboe and English horn, bassoon, and contrabassoon
• Saxophone (soprano, alto, tenor, and baritone)
• Recorder (soprano, alto, tenor, and bass)
Upon viewing the list, one notices not all the instruments are wood; however, early versions of the instruments were wooden. Later additions (i.e., saxophones) were placed in the family because of the similar properties they share.
Woodwinds have become increasingly popular in liturgical music due to the ubiquitous “C instrument part” found in so many folk/contemporary arrangements. Furthermore, there is an abundance of woodwind players because flute and clarinet tend to be the most frequently chosen instruments by grade school and high school instrumentalists. They are relatively easy to play, and a competent high school player should be able to play most published parts found in octavos and song collections.
Before we look individually at instruments, let us take another look at that generic C instrument. The C instruments are so named because they are nontransposing instruments. An A on a piano is an A on a C instrument. The C instruments are flute, piccolo, oboe, soprano recorder, and also violin and orchestra bells. A synthesizer can also play a C instrument part. Be judicious in assigning instruments; what is appropriate for an oboe is frequently not appropriate for orchestra bells. Some C instruments are bass and tenor instruments (cello, bass, trombone, bassoon). These instruments use the bass clef and may not use treble-clef parts.
The Individual Instruments. The flute may be the most popular woodwind instrument. Like all woodwinds, it displays the ability to be acrobatic when called for, yet is capable of sustaining a legato tone of great warmth and color. When not playing its own parts, it may be helpful to have the flute play the soprano line or melody of a hymn or song. This is exceptionally helpful on descants, and the flute can also help center the pitch if singers are instructed to tune in to the flute sound. The flute has a range of over two-and-a-half octaves, but the bottom octave should not be used with large forces—it will be inaudible. However, this bottom octave is very lovely if only the solo flute is playing. Some flutists may own alto and bass flutes. They generally should not be used for ensemble playing, but in solo performances. Their sound is quiet and haunting and best suited to meditative moments. The piccolo is one octave higher than the flute and has been neglected by many music directors. Piccolos need not always conjure up images of “The Stars and Stripes Forever.” The piccolo in its bottom register has a “chiffy” sound, to borrow from organ terminology. The piccolo works well on folk or “rustic”-sounding music; imagine it playing a tune like ash grove or holy manna. Its upper limits should be avoided. The flute and piccolo play in the treble clef and ranges are given below:
The oboe, bassoon, and their siblings are double-reed instruments, called so because the reed is two pieces of cane (reed) tied together. The reed on woodwind instruments vibrates and produces what is called a crow, similar to the sound made by placing a blade of grass between your thumbs and blowing.
The oboe sound can be described as plaintive and melancholy. (Remember the duck of Peter and the Wolf? If you are not familiar with that piece, then think of the old snake charmer song, a favorite of fourth-grade oboists.) Unlike the flute, the oboe has a bottom range capable of piercing through a heavy ensemble sound. In some instances, the bottom octaves may be too pronounced for use with the choir.
The oboe and flute work well together. The flute should always take the higher part if you are using a part for two C instruments. Likewise, when doubling choral parts, it is advisable to assign the alto part to the oboe. Be aware that some alto notes fall below the oboe’s possible range. Much rehearsal time for choir can be saved by the use of flute and oboe and other instruments (for example, during a carol sing-along before Christmas masses when part-singing can be made easier by having choir sections focus on specific instruments). The oboe has a very distinctive sound for the choir altos on which to isolate. Of course, the oboe can also be used on soprano parts. A wonderful sound is produced by having the flute and oboe playing melody, with the flute playing the melody an octave higher.
The English horn is a peculiar relative of the oboe. As the old quip goes, it is neither English nor a horn. (The name may be a derivative of “angle,” relating to the slight bend of the thin metal tube at the top of the instrument.) If you are lucky enough to have access to one, it likewise should be used only as a solo instrument. Its tone is deeper than that of an oboe. If trumpets remind you of Easter morning, the English horn may remind you of Good Friday. It is a transposing instrument. Its G sounds like a C. In order to sound a G, you must write D.
The bassoon is the bass clef member of the double-reed family. Although its strength lies in its role as an ensemble instrument, it can provide a unique solo sound. The bassoon is a C instrument and may play the tenor or bass part when doubling choral parts. There is little need to use the contrabassoon. An interesting combination (perhaps for Epiphany) would be a double-reed quartet—two oboes and two bassoons. A very limited amount of music is published for this exotic grouping. The oboes would play the soprano and alto parts and the bassoons would play the tenor and bass parts. The possible and preferred ranges for the double-reed instruments follow.
The clarinet is marked by its warm, mellow sound. Beginning clarinetists are asked to think of a “chocolatey” sound. The range of the clarinet is over three octaves. The typical clarinet is a B clarinet. (A thorough explanation of transposing instruments was given in the section on brass instruments.) When the clarinet plays a D, what really sounds is a C. Likewise, in order for the clarinet to play a G, you must write an A. If you wish to use a C instrument part with a clarinet, the part must be transposed up one whole step. The clarinet possesses different characteristics in its different ranges. The bottom range is dark and warm. The mid-range is frequently thin and breathy. The upper range gets increasingly shrill as the notes get higher.
The clarinet is suited to the soprano, alto, or tenor ranges. Distant relatives in the clarinet family include the little E clarinet, which has a thin, piercing sound. The alto clarinet has the ability to play lower notes than the regular B soprano clarinet. Its only use now seems to be in music for clarinet choir. The bass clarinet is the second-most-used clarinet. Its curved neck and bell give it a resemblance to the saxophone. The bass clarinet uses a treble clef. It transposes at the range of a ninth; thus, a written D sounds like a C. In order to sound a D, you must write an E.
The bass clarinet (and contrabass clarinet) have their best use in the clarinet choir. Clarinet choir is a name given to anywhere from four to eight or more clarinets, with five and six being the most common groupings. There is an abundance of clarinet choir music for purchase. When writing your parts, or adapting a hymn, the B soprano clarinets should take the soprano and alto lines, a bass clarinet may take the tenor line, and a contrabass clarinet may take the bass line. Note that some contrabass clarinets are in B and some are in E. Check in advance with the player. All clarinet parts are written in treble clef.
The saxophone has had an image problem among “serious” musicians because of its association with jazz and its lack of use in the standard orchestral repertoire. The saxophone was a favorite instrument of French composers in the early part of this century, so it is not surprising to learn that there is no shortage of music for the saxophone quartet. The unique feature of a saxophone quartet is that it is comprised of four distinct instruments—soprano, alto, tenor, and baritone. Each instrument has its own unique sound. The ranges of all saxophones are the same. The alto and baritone are E instruments; a written F-sharp sounds an A on the alto saxophone and an A an octave lower on the baritone. Note that although it is the bass voice, the part is still written in treble clef. The soprano and tenor saxophone are B instruments; thus, a written D sounds a C on a soprano saxophone and a C an octave lower on a tenor saxophone. The tenor saxophone is likewise written in treble clef.
Although they are not a band or orchestra instrument, the recorders are the predecessors of modern woodwind instruments. Recorders are found in SATB voicings with soprano and tenor being C instruments and the alto and bass recorder being F instruments. Their ranges are two octaves. Note that they sound an octave higher than written. A G on soprano recorder really sounds like a G an octave higher. If a part is marked recorder, flute is an adequate substitute. The lower recorders possess a haunting sound, much like the alto and bass flutes. The recorder is well suited to Renaissance pieces as well as newer folk/contemporary pieces.
Too often our creativity is limited to trumpets on Easter and strings on Christmas. The woodwinds provide a wide range of color and expressiveness. Explore the unique sounds of the woodwind family. It just might add a little more excitement to your musical program.
String Instruments
Stringed instruments in this article refer to those found in the orchestra—violin, viola, violin, cello (cello), and contrabass violin (bass or string bass). They all have four strings and may be played by bowing (drawing the bow across the strings) or by plucking the strings. In our previous two articles, we mentioned that brass instruments provide power and woodwinds provide agility to the choral sound. Strings, of course, provide a lush warm sound—if played well and in tune! We have also previously noted that a good high school player can frequently satisfy your needs for woodwind or brass parts; be careful, however, when recruiting string players from your congregation. Strings tend to be a little more difficult to play in tune than wind instruments. (There’s nothing quite like the sound of a violin just slightly out of tune.) Ideally, you should be able to hire competent professional musicians for feast days. My former pastor frequently reminded me that the electric bill alone for our parish complex was $2500 a month; spending several hundred dollars (if not close to a thousand) for musicians on a feast day was certainly within the budget line. After all, what are our priorities?
Having laid that last line on your pastor, you are either looking for a new job or you have a budget with which to work. How many strings should you get? The standard string ensemble is the string quartet. It consists of two violins, a viola, and a cello. The violins play the soprano and alto line, the viola takes the tenor line, and the cello provides the bass part. Publishers have plenty of choral music with string parts. If you are blessed with an abundance of good string players or funds, you may want to increase the size of your string ensemble. There is an unwritten law of strings that states that two players on one part is trouble. It is advisable to have three violins on a part if you are using a larger ensemble. Why? Because two players playing ever so slightly out of tune will produce a spine-tingling sound. However, three or more players tend to “cancel out” out-of-tune notes, and a fuller, richer sound is produced. Once again, avoid having two violins playing the same part. The ideal ensemble to accompany an organ, large congregation, and choir would be three first violins, three-second violins, three (maybe two) violas, and a cello with a string bass. True, it is a pretty large and expensive ensemble, but for something as important as midnight Mass or the Easter vigil, it is very justifiable.
Another problem with a large string ensemble is the amount of space it will need. Bows sailing through the air and large instruments like cellos and basses require space. Of further concern is the direction the players are facing. Those squiggly little f-shaped holes on the instruments (called the f holes) are where the sound comes out. Putting the violins on the “wrong side” of the conductor is like having the stereo speakers facing the wall instead of the room. A final concern deals with baton technique when conducting. Yes, baton technique. Orchestral players are accustomed to following a baton. Furthermore, it just may wake up your choir a bit: “What is that thing in the director’s hand?” Be aware of a little delay at first when conducting. Orchestral players tend to play a little “behind” the beat; you may give a downbeat and the strings may come in “late.” Simply ask them to anticipate the beat and stay with the choir. They will adjust accordingly.
Writing Your Own Parts. There may be instances when you will have to arrange music yourself for the string quartet or ensemble. Here is an overview of the individual instruments. The violin, as noted earlier, plays the soprano and alto lines in SATB music. The practical range of the violin is three octaves, and it uses the treble clef. The viola is the tenor of the string quartet/ensemble. The most troubling aspect of part-writing for the viola is feeling comfortable writing in the alto clef.
Once again, higher notes are possible but not advisable. What about that funny clef? When using the C clef (alto clef in this instance), remember that the line found at the middle of the lines is C. In this case, the third line is C. This C is middle C on a piano, or the C at the very bottom of a soprano’s range. Note that the viola can play one octave below that C and many notes above that C. The cello and the string bass use bass clef and take the bass line.
Let’s look at arranging a hymn to reinforce these concepts. Taking the standard SATB setting of “Silent Night,” we give the melody to the first violin. If you are using a string quartet, it is advisable to write the soprano line one octave higher so the sound can carry through the organ/choir/congregation texture. It will get “lost” in the octave as written. If you have a string ensemble, perhaps have one violin play the melody up an octave and keep the other first violins down the octave as written.
The second violins will play the alto line. Once again, alter the parts as suggested above. The violin parts project better when used in the upper octave. The viola plays the tenor line. Ready to use the alto clef? What looks like in the hymnal should look like on the violist’s page.
Finally, the cello (and bass) play the bass line directly out of the hymnal. Note that the bass sounds an octave lower than written. It is desirable for the bass to provide this lower octave.
When examining published parts, or when writing your own parts, there are two terms that appear occasionally. Arco means bow the notes; pizz. (short for pizzicato) means pluck the notes. Pizzicato, when used sparingly, is a wonderful sound. Before singing “God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen,” have the strings play it once pizzicato.
This brief article is only a starting point for understanding the band and orchestra instruments. Along with a sacramentary and lectionary, every church musician should have a copy of an orchestration book on their shelves. For a more detailed explanation of ranges, transposition, and characteristics of individual instruments, consult either of the following two books, both of which are recognized as authoritative treatments of orchestration: Kent Kennan, The Technique of Orchestration (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1952, 1970) and Walter Piston, Orchestration (New York: Norton, 1955).