Music in black churches an is an exuberant celebration of Jesus Christ and realization of the power of the Spirit. It is necessarily shaped by the unique experience of black Christians and emphasizes themes—such as the need for liberation in Christ—important to this experience.
Music has always been a necessary thread in the fabric out of which the human spirit was created. From ancient times to the present day, music has filled the gaps made by humanity’s attempt to express the inexpressible. As Debussy observed, music “reaches the naked flesh of feeling.”
This is especially true when considering the religious pilgrimage of the human race. Worship forms and practices have been designed to assist in humankind’s quest to find meaning and purpose. And music has been part and parcel of deity worship from the dawn of civilization.
The Judeo-Christian heritage attests to the importance of musical expression. It would be impossible to imagine the people of God without a song. Evidence is plentiful that music played an important role in the Hebrew worship of Yahweh. The Psalms attest to the importance of music in the worship of God.
Even though the New Testament church was composed of a variety of forms and practices, all of these expressions sprang from Jewish roots. The New Testament church was a reflection of Jewish forms. Even though the evidence is not as pronounced, we know that the early Christian church emphasized music as an integral part of worship and praise to God. In the early church, music belonged to the congregation, and Scripture makes many references to the practice of singing. Some of the most beautiful passages in the New Testament are ancient hymns, borrowed and recast by the biblical writers to fit a particular theological purpose.…
Toward a Better Way
One of the tasks of ministers and musicians is to monitor and examine the music of the church, specifically the music of the black worship experience, and to see whether or not the people of God are giving their best. Traditions must be constantly reexamined. An attempt should be made, not only to reflect the best of the African-American tradition but also to be true to the biblical model.
One of the purposes of this article then is to make contemporary black ministers more aware of the issues with which they must deal if they are serious about correcting abuses within the church that relate to music and worship. Such correction is an educational task. To accomplish this task, the reader must glean some understanding of the nature and meaning of music as reflected in the history of Israel and in the churches of the New Testament. The people of God have always been a singing people, and their experiences have always given shape to their songs.
Another purpose of this article is to take a closer look at the pastor-musician-choir-congregation relationship. Even though singing is not an end in itself, neither is it a means of filling in the gaps in the worship experience. Music is not to act as a piece of the scenic background. Songs should not be sung just because they are on the “top ten” gospel list. The congregation is not ever to be a spectator but, through a unique spiritual encounter, is to become a participant. The function of the choir is to worship as well as to sing. This article will take a deeper look at this complex set of relationships in order to aid the examination of the issues to be raised.
Still another aim of this article is to take a look at how the state of music in the black church has developed. Usually, cultural trends take place over a period of time and cannot be traced to any one cause. In studying the development of these cultural trends, my intention is not to remove from a black culture that has given power, substance, and life to black religion, but to preserve the best of the black faith heritage and to foster continual growth and creativity out of which its music was and continues to be born. One must not only speak of the past relevance of the black church but must also address the question of continuing relevance. The genius of the black slaves was in their ability to apply “contemporary hermeneutic” to the situation in which they found themselves. They did, in effect, “sing the Lord’s song in a strange land” (Psalm 137:4). To a large extent, the land is still strange. But a song must be sung.
A Black Point of View
When speaking of black religion, it may be an understatement to say that music has always been a necessary ingredient in the religion of African Americans. In this case, music has been more than a mere ingredient. It has been the yeast that has given shape, substance, and content to the black religious experience.
First of all, when one stops speaking of religion and begins speaking of black religion, that person immediately risks compartmentalizing the whole of the religious experience. However, it must be recognized that societies impose labels that have, to a large extent, defined the parameters of human existence. The people of various societies filter their behavior, view of reality, religious beliefs, and identity through different cultural screens.
Inevitably the question must be asked, “What is black religion?”
Henry Mitchell names some characteristics of black religion. First, he finds a uniqueness of black culture in the freedom of expression observed in the pulpit and the congregation of any given church. A second, closely related characteristic in the black worship experience is what he calls “ritual freedom,” that is, the spirit dictates, and not the printed order of worship, who shall participate, when, and for how long. Akin to this second characteristic is the freedom found in the music of black worship. The black church has “melodic license” and makes uninhibited use of improvisation.
African Roots and Influence
Even though much has been written in recent years about African roots, it may be well to identify some characteristics in order to say how the past has shaped the present state of affairs in the black church.
Miles Mark Fisher, in his book Negro Slave Songs in the United States, identifies some of the characteristics of African culture, especially as they related to the music and worship practices of the African. It might first be noted that religion, as well as music, was deeply embedded in the whole of African life. African thought was not compartmentalized and fragmented. The African’s view of the world was holistic. Even the distinction in Western culture between “sacred” and “secular” did not apply in African culture. Music was part of every event and experience in the life of the African. Music told the unwritten story of the history of a given community.
Eileen Southern describes the style of singing in African culture. “The singing style employed by the Africans was characterized by high intensity and the use of such special effects as falsetto, shouting and guttural tones” (The Music of Black Americans [New York: Norton, 1971], 14). In terms of musical form
The most constant feature of African songs was the alternation of improvised lines and fixed refrains. This form allowed for both innovative and conservative procedures at the same time: the extemporization of verses to suit the specific occasion and the retention of traditional words in the refrains; the participation of the soloist in the verses and of the group in singing the refrains; improvisation or embellishment upon the solo melody and reinforcement of the traditional tune in the refrains.
Dena Epstein seeks to trace African roots and contends that one must look in such places as Jamaica and the West Indies for additional sources. She says that West Indian accounts give valuable information about the music of slaves that could not be gathered in mainland reports. She concludes that “African music was transplanted to the New World by the second half of the seventeenth century.” Musical instruments in use at the time included drums, rhythm sticks, banjos, musical bows, quills or panpipes, and a form of xylophone called the balafo.
African Influence in the New World
The arrival of a few African slaves at Jamestown in 1619 was the beginning of another chapter in the history of the New World. The scars of slavery have already been well documented. The important point to remember is that the African slaves brought with them components of a culture that could not and would not be extinguished in the new land. This was due, in part, to the persistence of an oral tradition. Knowing this tradition is vital to understanding the continuation of musical forms and practices during slavery. (Note that slavery did not destroy these forms and practices.)
Even though slaves in the New World were separated from family and kin and from those of common tongue, the musical forms of African culture were retained. Wyatt Tee Walker (Somebody’s Calling My Name [Valley Forge, Pa.: Judson Press, 1979], 29) notes that
with no common tongue, the musical expression was reduced to chants and moans on the rhythm forms and in the musical idioms that survived. As the slaves learned the language of the masters, their verbal commonality became most pronounced in the music that developed in the context of slavery.
The emergence of what E. Franklin Frazier calls the “invisible church” was a logical consequence of the desire of the slaves to maintain continuity with the past, and the form of worship in the “secret meetings” was akin to the forms of worship in the motherland. In these services, the tone was altogether different from the tone of the plantation owners’ services. One of the characteristics of this tone can be identified as “call and response.” Southern (Music of Black Americans, 18) notes:
Modern scholars often use the term “call and response” to describe the responsorial or antiphonal nature of African song performance—i.e., the alternation of solo passages and choral refrains or of two different choral passages. Typically, a song consists of the continuous repetition of a single melody, sung alternately by the song leader and the group, or alternately by two groups. The importance of the song leader cannot be overstressed: it was he who chose the song to be sung, who embellished the basic melody and improvised appropriate verses to fit the occasion, and who brought the performance to an end.
Another feature of the music of the slaves was its improvisational quality. A genius of the slaves was their ability to create new songs from old melodies and to improvise upon various themes. Those who heard the slave melodies found it quite difficult to explain or define what they heard.
In order to understand the culture of black people, one must study African culture. In research done by Miles Mark Fisher, he suggests that music was the means by which the African people commented on their laws, customs, and history. “Folk historians” in every town were “living” encyclopedias. In various life situations, there was music: on the battlefield, in secret meetings, at marriages and funerals, at childbirth, in hunting, and in recreation.
Fisher concludes that five statements can be postulated concerning the importance of spirituals as historical documents. First, “the primary function of African music was to give the history of a people.” Second, “African Negros were transplanted to the Americas along with their gifts of song.” Third, “the first extended collection of slave songs was advertised as historical documents from the Negro people.” Fourth, “such an evolution of slave songs was perceived by diverse people.” And, fifth, “Negro spirituals are best understood in harmony with this historical interpretation.”
To deny that there are identifiable characteristics of black culture and religion and, therefore, of its music is to deny that any culture has an identity of its own. No matter how cultures may overlap and the degree to which they are assimilated, each culture has identifiable characteristics. It is also to deny the existence of various forms of witness within the “churches” of the New Testament. To affirm the expression of faith as given to those of African-American descent is to recognize the extent to which cultures have responded to the activity of God in the world.
Black Theology and Black Music
Black theology deals with how black people see God, the world, and themselves from the vantage point of the oppressed.
I have indeed seen the misery of my people in Egypt. I have heard them crying out because of their slave drivers, and I am concerned about their suffering. I have come down to rescue them.… (Exod. 3:7–8)
Black religion is a response to God’s initiative, articulated through the thought forms, music, art, and customs of African culture. Black music comments on the history of that pilgrimage; a journey of sorrow, joy, despair, hope, frustration, and fulfillment.
The task, then, is to affirm the good in black theology and to offer correctives so that black theology may continue to address the needs of black people in light of their relationship to God and culture.
Historically, as has been shown, the music of the black church has reflected the theology of the pilgrimage of black people. Set within the context of the black church, the religious music of black people has helped to articulate the very soul and substance of the black experience, most especially for those who belong to the family of God.
In many instances, music has not only been shaped by theology but has also shaped theology. Not only may one speak of a theology of music, but one might also speak of the music of theology. There is no doubt that in the black church music is the lifeblood. Among blacks, music is not always compartmentalized into categories such as sacred and secular. In fact, the black church itself does not always see itself in light of such labels. Among African Americans, just as in African culture, religion permeates the whole of life, and so does music.
Here a distinction must be made between the folk religion of the black masses and the religion of those blacks who are part of a more institutionalized form of religion and have been influenced to a greater extent by white culture. It would appear that musical expression is much more significant among blacks who make up the middle- to lower-class structures.
Henry Mitchell also speaks of the “call-and-response” element in black preaching. To a large extent, the power of the sermon is determined by how well the black preacher can “sing” the sermon. Such matters as voice intonation, style, and sermonic rhythm help determine the success and popularity of many black preachers. Especially is this true among blacks who have made no attempt to “whiten” their culture.
This is not to suggest that black congregations do not value preparation, both academic and spiritual, and the content of the sermon. The black preacher must preach to the needs of the people. The preaching style only highlights the extent to which music is embedded in the entire worship experience of the black church.
To a large extent, a black church is judged by its spiritual tone, most often reflected in its ministry of music and worship. Often music is the vehicle by which the masses of black people are initially drawn into the community of faith. Many people join a particular church because that church has a “good” choir. Of course, that does not mean that such people, attracted to a church because of the music, are necessarily serious about the church’s real ministry, which runs far deeper than superficial attractions.
Evidence of Erosion
Increasingly, music in the black church has been separated from its theological and historical underpinnings. Instead of serving theology as a legitimate response to God and telling the story of hardship, disappointment, and hope, music in the black church has become, in many instances, an end to itself. This often fosters the goal of entertainment rather than the goal of ushering people into the very presence of the Almighty and sending them forth to serve.
J. Deotis Roberts (Roots of a Black Future: Family and Church [Philadelphia: Westminster, 1980], 114-115) offers a valuable insight into the proper understanding of the relationship between black theology and music. He says,
Our theological task is to supply a theological underpinning for meaning in black life. Black churches are now experiencing a great influx of black youth because of the popularity of gospel music.… But the underlying reason for the enchantment with the “gospel sound” may be a profound search for purpose and value in life. Gospel music is emotional and otherworldly. It has little if anything to do with finding meaning for life in a hostile world. Unless we are able to anchor the celebration in Biblical faith and personal and social ethics, our success story will have a short history.
More and more, music in the black church has become commercialized and packaged. Some of its lyrics represent poor theology, which has no place in black churches seeking to present the best of the faith heritage. As a result, the black church runs the risk of misusing this vital and necessary component of the faith.
Two of the responsibilities of the black church are to preserve its rich musical heritage as well as to create new music. One of the forms of this heritage is called the Negro spiritual. In many instances, the spirituals, or “stories in music,” have been abandoned, and generations of black boys and girls are growing up with no appreciation for black history as recorded in the spirituals. These “social commentaries” are yet relevant, for they speak today in a society in which both despair and hope affect the human spirit.
The music of the black religious experience was born out of struggle and represents genuine emotion and motivation. In many instances what exists today is an attempt to copy what has already been packaged and to bury the gift of the creative spirit behind electronic instruments and assembly-line lyrics.
The singing of hymns has always been a great experience in the black worship idiom, and often hymns sound different when sung in black churches than when they are sung in white churches. Frequently these hymns have been just about removed from the order of worship. Many choirs who sing gospel music loud and clear can hardly be heard when the time comes to sing a congregational hymn. Even when hymns are sung, they have been “gospelized” to a point at which their true beauty cannot be appreciated.
Another evidence of decay is the less frequent use of the old meter hymns, born in England, brought to New England, and adopted by blacks. They are a solid fixture in the black religious heritage, and the preservation of the meter-hymn style of singing should be ensured by our learning them from a dying breed of southern blacks and teaching them to our young.
The Abuse of the Black Heritage
Obviously, the social context of blacks has helped to shape and define their institutions. Systematically barred from full participation in the large society, blacks have had to develop support systems of their own creation. The black church has not only served a religious function but has been an all-purpose institution, providing social as well as spiritual services. Much like the synagogue of Judaism, the black church has been the center of black life. From it came self-help organizations, resources for extended families, educational opportunities, and political organizations. It provided a place for the free display of talent and potential that could not be utilized and appreciated in America’s marketplace. Those who were powerless had access to power within the black church. Those who had neither title nor position elsewhere could hold office in the black church. Those who could not release their feelings in the everyday world could be heard on Sunday morning. The black church was and is both a place of temporary withdrawal as well as a place to refuel for the journey.
Even though the sharp distinction between “sacred” and “secular” does not exactly fit the black experience in religion, it can be postulated that the rise of secularism in the larger society has had an effect upon the secularization of music within the black church. When gospel music came into prominence in the 1930s and was popularized by the recording industry in the 1940s, many blacks initially resisted this “honky-tonk” music, as it was called. Even though the advent of pianos and organs was initially seen as profane, the present movement toward drums, guitars, and tambourines has been seen by some as further contamination of a rich and glorious heritage. During the latter part of this century, the rhythm of the spirituals and meter hymns has been replaced by the beat of the gospel song.
Of course, it is not the use but the abuse of this music form that causes such concern. This is not to suggest that other forms cannot or have not been subject to abuse and misuse. It is to suggest, however, that the music prevalent in many black churches today more easily lends itself to the possibility of abuse, if the direction it is taking is allowed to persist unchecked. The worship experience demands discipline as well as freedom, which is a constant theme of the apostle Paul. To paraphrase Cullmann, Paul sought to balance the “free expression of the Holy Spirit” with the “binding character of the liturgy.”
It is necessary to continue to affirm the power and appeal of music in the black church. Just as the Africans were musical people, so African-Americans are musical people. In the black church, the two major attractions are still good preaching and good singing, although perhaps not always in that order. Already I have alluded to the way in which the preaching of the gospel is punctuated with musical intonations. The power of worship is in the music, and music’s importance must continue to be affirmed. Blacks seem to tolerate poor preaching if the services can be redeemed by good singing.
It must also be recognized that the masses of black people have been attracted to the churches through gospel music rather than hymns. However, it is still necessary to guard against the temptation to give people what we think they want without critical examination of what is offered and of what they need.
Pastoral Leadership
In the black church, the pastors have a great deal of freedom to shape, define, and influence the worship experience. More than any other person, pastors are expected to lead in worship. Their responsibilities include encouraging and insisting that the congregation give its best to God and overseeing the entire ministry of the church. Even though the pastors of black congregations may not be musicians, they must be in touch with the issues relevant to the quality of music that comes forth from the worshiping congregation. Unfortunately, the seminary does not always equip pastors in the development of a theology of church music.
One of the problems is that ministers often take a hands-off policy rather than be intentional as they engage in ministerial transactions within the church. The minister has the responsibility and challenge to define, interpret, and plan those areas that will absorb the resources and energies of the congregation.
Toward a Theology of Music and Worship in the Black Idiom
What, then, is black worship? It is the corporate reflection by black people upon the acts of God, who responds to the theological, sociocultural, and political needs of black people. A theology of worship must, then, reflect the cultural peculiarities of blacks, and at the same time, rest upon the biblical foundations that have historically shaped the direction and destiny of African Americans.
What, then, are some of the characteristics of black worship at its best? To ask further, how can one, in fact, test the following guidelines against the biblical and cultural norm? How does one determine whether the music that enters worship represents the best of the African-American heritage?
First, music in the black church must express the communal nature of the black experience. This does not mean that music expressing the desires of the individual should be rejected. It does mean, however, that the individual finds meaning through identity with co-sufferers, with those who walk the same existential path. James Cone expresses the individual-within-community concept when he says, “Black music is unifying because it confronts the individual with the truth of black existence and affirms that black being is possible only in a communal context.”
Cone’s understanding is in line with the biblical norm and the apostle Paul’s concept of the building up of the family of God (1 Cor. 14:3–4; Eph. 4:12). In the Corinthian passage, Paul tested the value of the diversity of gifts against his norm of edification. He said, “He who speaks in a tongue edifies himself, but he who prophesies edifies the church.” (Although New Testament scholars debate the Pauline authorship of Ephesians, Pauline theology in Ephesians is evident.) Music in the black church must edify the family of God as it places the individual within the context of the community.
Second, music in the black church must hold in tension the emphasis on this world and the expectations of the new age. It must be “this-worldly” without being materialistic and earthbound. It must be “otherworldly” without being disconnected from the concerns of social justice. Music is to minister to the whole person. This is the task of black churches seeking to be true to their heritage. Some churches are not seeking to be true to their heritage.
Third, music in the black church must balance the freedom of the Holy Spirit with liturgical restrictions. Spontaneity must be tempered with a sense of order and meaningful content. Emotion in black worship must be affirmed, but emotionalism must be discouraged.
Fourth, the black church must continue to be a place for celebration, and such celebration must continually be reflected in the music. Blacks have always gathered for worship expecting celebration to happen.
No doubt music will always be a vital component of the religious pilgrimage of black Americans. As it has done in the past, music must continue to comment on the hopes, fears, disappointments, and faith of a people who still must struggle to “sing the Lord’s song in a strange land.” Just as the early Christians initially gathered each Lord’s day to celebrate the Resurrection, so blacks will continue each Sunday morning to share in that victory over the unjust social structures that still need to be dismantled, so that “the kingdom of the world has become the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ, and he shall reign forever and ever” (Rev. 11:15).