Athanasius

Council of Constantinople

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Soon after the Arian controversy, another conflict arose over the person of Christ. The question here was whether the divine nature of Christ absorbed the human, or whether the two remained apart in his person. Again the West was content with the teaching of Tertullian that both natures were complete, but the East was divided by differences of interpretation in the rival schools of Alexandria and Antioch. The Alexandrian school explained the two natures as fused in a single personality; Antioch stressed the separateness of the two natures. Apollinaris, Bishop at Laodicea, thought the true explanation of Christ’s nature was that his body and mind were human, but that his spirit was replaced by the Logos.

Impact: Since Apollinaris’ doctrine marred the perfection of his humanity, it was condemned at the Council of Constantinople in 381. This same Council asserted the divinity of the Holy Spirit. From that time the Athanasian doctrine of the Trinity has held the orthodox position in Christianity.

Council of Nicea

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Theological discussion in about 300 centered on the nature of Christ. While few Christians understood the fine distinctions of the theologians, they sensed the importance of the issue. The author of the Epistle to the Hebrews spoke of him as a high priest who is able to take away human sin. John in his Gospel made Jesus the incarnate Logos. Origen of Alexandria contributed the explanation that Jesus Christ was of the same nature as God. The problem was how to explain Christ so that he would not lose his divine dignity and at the same time keep his human values. The more the deity of Christ was stressed, the greater seemed the danger of making two Gods. The reaction produced Monarchianism, the government of one God. They stated that while on earth Christ’s existence as man was a temporary mode of God. This gave them the name of Modalists. Their close identification of the Son with the Father made it possible to charge them with teaching that it was God the Father who suffered on the Cross. Those who liked to emphasize the true humanity of Christ explained that Christ was merely the human Jesus until at his baptism he became the adopted Son of God. These believers were called Dynamic Monarchians. Neither Monarchian theory was a satisfactory explanation of the incarnation. It was difficult to be specific in teaching and escape the accusation of heresy. Such division of forces weakened the Christian Church, and when Constantine decided to make Christianity legal he resolved to unify Christendom. For the West, the issue had virtually been settled by Tertullian’s teachings on the Trinity. In the East, the fourth century brought the debate to a boiling point with the specific argument between Arianism, a form of Monarchianism, and Athanasianism, a form of Catholic theology. The controversy was precipitated by Arius, a presbyter in the church of Alexandria. The dispute between Arius and his bishop, Alexander, was so keen that Emperor Constantine summoned the Christian bishops to a council at Nicea near his own capital in order to establish unity of doctrine for all the churches. A general council to include all the dignitaries of the Church had never met before. The Council of Nicea, which met in the year 325, ranks as the most important in the history of the Christian Church. An Alexandrian synod had condemned Arius already, but he was supported by Eusebius of Nicomedia and a considerable following. Arius himself was present. Among the supporters of Alexander was Athanasius, at that time a youthful deacon of the church at Alexandria and a few years later its bishop. It was agreed that Jesus was of the same “substance” as the Father and the creed was adopted as orthodox.

Impact: The emperor was pleased with the result and sent Arius and his supporters into banishment. Outside of the Holy Scriptures, the Nicene Creed is the most important document the Church holds to establish orthodoxy.

Establishment of the Canon

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Although the letters of Paul were written to special groups of Christians they were welcomed and read by churches everywhere. Paul’s letters and the Gospels soon were deemed worthy of a place in a new collection of sacred writings. With them were other documents that received the ultimate approval of the Christian people including the Acts of the Apostles, written by Luke to explain the beginnings of the church; a number of brief letters from key Christian leaders; the anonymous letter to the Hebrews; and the Apocalypse written by the Apostle John. Writings like Acts and the letters to Timothy and Titus received immediate acceptance, but less known documents such as the general epistles were slower to receive recognition. Some of them were esteemed in the East and others in the West, as shown by two documentary evidence, one the Syriac Bible of the East, an early version, and the other the Muratorian Fragment, a list discovered in the eighteenth century. In the fourth-century official sanction was given by synods in North Africa.

Impact: The Festal Letter of Athanasius in 367 contains the names of twenty-six books of the New Testament, the same as now. The establishment of the canon set the foundation upon which the Church was built.

Athanasius

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Athanasius (c. 296-373) was a young presbyter in the Alexandrian church during the ecumenical council in Nicea (325). Athanasius was the chief defender of Trinitarian doctrine against the heresy of Arianism. In 328 he became bishop after Alexander’s death. He was banished four times for his stand against heresy by Arian Emperors. He was permitted to return each time. He wrote many works toward the end of his life defending the deity of Christ and affirming that anti-Trinitarianism is the most dangerous enemy of orthodoxy. He upheld the truths of Christianity against those who would have introduced heresy into the church.