Armenian

Modern Renewal in the Eastern Rite Catholic Churches

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The Eastern Rite Catholic churches are communities that follow a form of the Eastern liturgy but which are under the jurisdiction of the Roman pontiff rather than one of the Eastern Orthodox patriarchates. Renewal in the Eastern Catholic churches has involved a slow process of the rediscovery and implementation of a variety of ancient traditions of worship.

The Second Vatican Council in its Decree on Eastern Catholic Churches expressed its high esteem for the rich traditions of these churches and urged the latter to preserve and honor their liturgical rites and restore them where they had been altered or abandoned. Changes within Eastern Catholic liturgical rites since that time have come about at a slow pace through local desire to return to authentic traditions as well as through the urging of the Oriental Congregation in Rome. Many of these changes have appeared in the form of the return to traditional vesture and the reintroduction of ancient liturgical anaphoras (central eucharistic rites) and prayers. Alongside these, in many places, the vernacular has replaced the ancient languages in liturgical celebrations, and many of the Latin Catholic liturgical insertions have been dropped.

Not all of these Latin influences (Latinizations), however, have been forsaken everywhere, since some of these practices (such as prayers before the statues of saints, the rosary, stations of the cross, and daily Mass) have become identified in the minds of the uninformed faithful with tradition itself. Nor has the return to traditional ways been complete where it had begun. The return to ancient architectural settings and liturgical forms still remains a challenge for many Syriac churches that await the reintroduction and use of the bema (a central platform for the liturgy of the Word), the lack of which leaves many of the prayers and liturgical actions out of tune with their proper liturgical context. Along with these, some juridical restrictions are still in effect and are in need of reform (e.g., the married priesthood is still restricted outside the immediate jurisdiction of these churches).

The carrying forward of this process of returning to tradition has become even more of a challenge in recent times, since many of these churches have considerable immigrant populations in the West, creating new pastoral situations and the need for liturgical recontextualization and readaptation. Thus, not all practices within a church’s liturgical tradition would be appropriate for modern needs, and prudent adaptations by liturgical commissions would be necessary. Many of these adaptations have taken the form of liturgical abbreviations and simplifications where the reform efforts are unorganized and without clear directions. Alongside these efforts lies the urgent need for the religious education of the faithful to enlighten them about the riches of their traditions, along with the arts and means of appropriating these traditions for modern needs. Much in this regard depends on the leadership and direction of the persons in authority in these churches—especially on their discernment of a clearer sense of future directions for their people—together with the liturgical and catechetical commissions in their diocese and the cooperation of the Latin church.

In the following paragraphs, I have sketched some of the efforts in liturgical reform made by the various Eastern Catholic churches in their attempts to return to tradition and to keep in step with the times. In many cases, these reforms are small and uncoordinated. They reveal the complexity of carrying forward such a challenging task and how much more effort and organization need to be undertaken.

The Maronites

The liturgical reforms in the Maronite church worldwide began in the early 1970s and continue today. The renewal, or better said, restoration of the Maronite Sunday liturgy began in both Lebanon and the United States (which has more than 50 parishes) through the guidance of the Vatican’s Sacred Congregation for Eastern Churches in Rome and the activities of the Patriarchal Synod and Liturgical Committee in Lebanon to restore the Maronite liturgy to its original framework. These reforms have led to the restoration of the cycle of prayers and hymns of the Sunday liturgy of the Word, as well as the uncovering of a very rich tradition of liturgical prayers and hymnals. While the yearly cycle for this Sunday liturgy has been recovered—replacing the single form which had become common up to the end of the 1960s—the architectural aspect, including the use of the bema (an enclosed platform), still remains to be restored. Many of the prayers and sacramental forms in this tradition, originally in Syriac, have been translated into Arabic and English for modern-day use.

Among the restorations of the Sunday liturgy have been the separate preparation of gifts at a side altar and the dropping of the penitential rites and offertory prayers which were Roman additions. Thus the Mass begins with the liturgy of the Word, with its own proper focus that is separate from the rites around the altar. The offertory procession has been restored with its prayers and incensing. The bema, however, has not been reintroduced as yet, and thus the first part of the Mass is held in front of the altar with the priest and deacon facing the people. Some of the litanies for this part have been abbreviated. The veil in front of the altar has not been restored. Among the innovations, the priest now faces the people during the liturgy of the Eucharist, and some of the prayers from the Anaphora of Sharar and priestly prayers have been dropped or abbreviated. The traditional formula for the words of the institution has been restored with its variant forms according to the different anaphoras. The epiklēsis has been brought to its proper position as an integral part of the consecration. Attempts at restoring early Maronite musical and hymnal forms have been made at the Holy Cross University and Maronite Seminary in Lebanon. In the United States the office, along with texts for all the sacraments, has been translated (and also revised) into English. Some experimentation at integrating the matrimonial rite or the office with the Mass has also been attempted. With the exception of a memorial Sunday liturgy, however, only a few Maronites attend their own parishes on a regular basis.

The Malabar Churches of India

Liturgical reform in the Malabar rites in Kerala was becoming evident after the Vatican Council, as the main liturgical language was changed from Syriac to Malayalam, the native tongue. An experimental version of the Chaldeo-Malabar rite in Malayalam was implemented and approved by the Oriental Congregation in Rome in 1968. This text of the Mass—Qurbana—with some adjustments was fixed in 1981. The latter move, however, has been criticized by scholars who consider the fixing of the present text as obstructing the process of return to authentic traditions, a process which is not yet liturgically completed and which still has a good residue of the old Roman rite practices. In this rite, too, the bema needs to be restored.

A similar case can be made for the Syro-Malabar churches, which have also translated their liturgical forms into the native tongue Malayalam. A few diocesan variations of the Sunday celebration have emerged. The first part of the Mass—the liturgy of the Word—is often celebrated with the priest facing the people. For the eucharistic liturgy, depending on local piety, the priest either faces the people or turns his back to face the altar. In the last few years, there has been a preference in some dioceses to have the priest turn towards the altar with his back to the people. A very few churches still use the original Syriac for consecration. Participation in the liturgy is adequate due to the original participatory nature of the liturgy and because of the present use of the vernacular along with hymns and songs in Malayalam.

As with the other Eastern rites, office prayers seem to have fallen from use. In the place of the office in many homes, family prayer is common where the rosary is often recited. Vocations (calls to the priesthood) are high and many priests are from the middle-class and from among those families that pray together. Parish priests often live together in basic support groups. All these elements—the use of the vernacular in liturgical prayer with participation, prayer at home, and community life for the clergy—seem to enhance the spiritual life of the community. The need to continue the process of reform and renewal, however, is evident. There are still old customs, especially towards women, that are in effect and that need to be changed (e.g., the purification of the mother before the baptism of her child). Some reforms also appear to be taking place in the Syrian Orthodox Church (rite of Malankara). A recent Synod in Kottayam has enacted reforms to enhance the role of women in the church. Among these are the following: young girls, and not just boys, are taken around the altar at their baptism; no longer does the first child to be baptized in the newly consecrated font have to be the male; and the bishops are encouraging women to read to the congregation from the Bible during the liturgy and to take part in the general meetings of local parishes.

The Melkites

The Melkites have adapted their liturgy to local languages wherever they have immigrated; thus, English was in liturgical use in the United States and Canada three decades before the Vatican II reforms. Other liturgical reforms, however, have taken place, mainly in the form of dropping some of the Roman liturgical insertions and devotions. The original Greek usage is very limited, and in the West either English or Arabic (in the case of newcomers from the Mideast) dominates. Priests tend to improvise and select their own prayers based on the three anaphoras and the litanies combined. An abbreviated version of the Mass has been provided for priests where parishioners have complained about the length of the Sunday liturgy. Attendance, especially of youth, tends to be low.

The biggest immigrant Melkite population is in South America (followed by the U.S.), especially in Brazil, which also has the lowest church attendance. In the United States, where there are about 40 Melkite parishes, regular Sunday church attendance is low, and on average the American-born Melkites attend more often than the Mideastern ones. Shortages in the number of priests constitute a major problem for this immigrant community spread over vast areas. The Sunday Eucharistic celebrations have been supplemented with a religious education program for youth, prepared in the early 1970s, that is common among all the Byzantine rites, with adaptations made by each.

The Ruthenians and the Ukrainians

There has been a limited change within the Catholic Byzantine rites of the Russian traditions. Liturgical reforms and renewal have taken the form of dropping many of the old Roman rite insertions along with reductions of litanies and of some priestly private prayers. In some parishes in the United States, daily Mass has become an accepted tradition. Frequent Sunday communion is now encouraged. Most Sunday liturgies among the Ruthenians are sung in English, while among the Ukrainians a few are still celebrated in the native language. New translations of liturgical prayers have appeared, depending on the efforts of each diocese, along with pastoral applications suited for local needs. Most eucharistic liturgies are conducted from behind the iconostasis (a screen, with icons, separating the altar area from the nave), including the liturgy of the Word in some dioceses. In most dioceses, however, the priest comes out to read the gospel to the people and to preach from in front of the iconostasis. Other developments within the Byzantine Catholic communities are appearing very slowly in the form of local adaptations arranged mostly by liturgical commissions in each diocese.

Differences in Sunday eucharistic celebrations between the Orthodox Byzantine churches and the Catholic ones in the United States show that the Orthodox tend to use choirs, while the Byzantine Catholics have relied mostly on cantors who lead the people in singing the liturgical prayers. The strong presence of Russian Orthodox churches in the U.S., along with a major seminary and publishing press (St. Vladimir’s), as well as other Orthodox seminaries, has further helped to establish this Byzantine tradition and make it known and better understood. Some considerations towards further church renewal have been suggested by a few on both the Orthodox and the Catholic sides. Among these have been the creative use of the iconostasis in liturgical celebrations, the readmitting of children’s communion after baptism for Catholic Byzantine churches, and greater liturgical participation by all. However, no major changes are planned or expected on either side.

The Armenian Catholics

There is a strong national and ecumenical affiliation between Catholic and Orthodox Armenians (as well as the few Protestants) with a common sense of being united as one ethnic and Christian people. The co-suffering of the Armenians under persecutions in this century has strengthened their sense of affiliation and communion. On the Catholic side, this sense of unity is expressed in terms of liturgical conformity with the Orthodox. Another way in which Armenians have shown their sense of unity is through their social clubs and schools which welcome all Armenians and even share in a common religious education. Memories of persecution as well as of recent suffering and the earthquake tragedy of the Armenians in the former Soviet Union have brought the parties into even greater national and spiritual communion.

The Mass, as in the Orthodox liturgy, is still celebrated in classical Armenian. However, some adaptations and abbreviations have been made. For example, at the liturgy of the Word, the Scriptures may be read in modern Armenian, and the sermons are in the vernacular to facilitate understanding. In the United States, preaching is done sometimes in English along with modern Armenian. Most Roman introductory prayers and insertions were dropped after the Second Vatican Council. Thus the present form of the Catholic Armenian Sunday liturgy is in conformity with the Orthodox, the only difference being of brevity in some places.

The Copts

The Copts of Egypt constitute a sizable majority among the Christians in the Middle East. Most of these are Orthodox, with a small minority of Catholic Copts. There is also a sizable number of immigrant Copts in the West (in the U.S. the Orthodox have 35 churches). It would be best to describe liturgical developments in this rite primarily in terms of lingual adaptations for the benefit of the new multi-lingual congregations emerging today. In Egypt, the Sunday Eucharist is celebrated in Coptic and Arabic, while in the United States it is a trilingual celebration in Coptic, Arabic, and English. The celebration lasts more than three hours. The Catholic Copts, fewer in number, celebrate the same liturgy but in a more abbreviated form.

Summary Observations

It would be reasonable to conclude from the above observations that long-term planning is necessary and even essential for a worthy process of liturgical reform and renewal for the Eastern Catholic churches. When a clear outlook to the future is lacking, the liturgical process becomes lost in its direction, and many “band-aid” solutions to keep up with the times begin to emerge. These temporary solutions, often in the form of improvisations, do not draw properly on the riches of that church’s tradition, nor do they adequately meet the spiritual needs of the faithful. It would be of great importance that Eastern Catholic bishops work collaboratively, with frequent consultations with the laity, to ensure that this process continues to perform adequately over the years. Since many of the Eastern churches today experience themselves as over-extended minority communities around the world, the interest, support, and cooperation of local Latin rite churches would be important in helping these Eastern Christian communities to value and share their heritage.

Worship in the Armenian Church

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The liturgy of the Armenian church reveals the influence of many sources but is basically of Syrian origin. It expresses the theme of sacrifice more than other Eastern liturgies and has the flavor of a temple rite.

The church of Armenia was evangelized from Edessa, and later by missionaries from Cappadocia. Its early liturgy was thus both Syrian and Greek. Its evolution as the Armenian church, with its own distinctive liturgy, is due to Gregory the Illuminator, a late third/early fourth-century aristocrat who was converted to Christianity in Caesarea (Cappadocia), and who returned to Armenia to convert the king (Tiridates II) who had been, up to then, persecuting the Christians. As a result, Christianity became the state religion in a.d. 301, and Gregory became the leader (Catholicos) of the Armenian church.

The Church

Gregory is not acclaimed as the “apostle of Armenia.” The legends which recount the origin of Christianity in Armenia attribute [early evangelization] to Jude, Thaddaeus, and Bartholomew. The Armenians thus claim apostolic roots. Gregory’s accomplishment was the conversion of the whole country and the establishment of the Armenian church.

Under Gregory, the church was more aristocratic than popular; the people had no access to the liturgy which was in Syriac and in Greek-revisions came only in the fifth century. These involved the creation of an Armenian alphabet and the translation of both Scripture and the liturgy into Armenian. The Armenian liturgy is certainly Antiochene in its roots, but, apparently for political reasons, the Armenian church sided with Alexandria after the Council of Chalcedon. Hence it recognizes only the first three councils. Today there are Armenian Catholics in union with Rome, and Armenians who remain an independent church. The preferred title for these latter is the Armenian Apostolic Church.

The liturgy of the Armenian church, called “The Liturgy of our Blessed Father Saint Gregory the Illuminator, revised and augmented by the Holy Patriarchs and Doctors, Sahag, Mesrob, Kud, and John Mandakuni,” is, as noted, rooted in the Antiochene tradition. Its evolution, however, reveals the influence of many sources: Coptic, Byzantine, and later (twelfth century) Latin. There is a substratum of the Syrian liturgy of St. James, which may have come via the liturgy of Basil (in use in Cappadocia). It was later embellished with texts from the Chrysostom (Byzantine) and Latin liturgies. It is not therefore simply an evolution of the Syrian/Antiochene tradition. Nonetheless, it remains Syrian at its deepest level. The texts cited here are from the English translation published in The Armenian Liturgy (Venice: Armenian Monastery of St. Lazarus, 1862).

The Liturgy

Introductory Rites. The introductory rites consist of the vesting of the ministers in the sacristy, the entrance and absolution of the officiating priest, and the preparation of the gifts. The first two are carried out in rich ceremonial; the last is done without the elaborate ritual of the Byzantine proskomidia. When prepared and veiled, the gifts are honored with incense. Most significant in these rites is the focus on the priest.

Liturgy of the Word. The liturgy of the Word originally began with the chanting of the trisagion. It was later embellished with texts from the Byzantine liturgy. It begins now with the blessing (“Blessed be the reign of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost … ”), the Monogenes of the Byzantine liturgy (“O only-begotten Son and Word of God … ”), which may be replaced with a seasonal hymn, a blessing, and four prayers recited by the priest while the choir sings the psalm and hymn of the day. These four prayers are the three antiphon prayers from the Byzantine introductory rites and the prayer of the Byzantine “Little Entrance.”

The trisagion is then sung, while the priest prays the Byzantine prayer of the trisagion. This is followed by a litany, the Epistle and Gospel reading, the creed (to which is appended an anti-Arian anathema), another litany and blessing, and the dismissal of the catechumens.

Pre-anaphora. The pre-anaphora begins with a proclamation (“The body of our Lord, and the blood of our Redeemer are about to be here present … ”). There follows the hagiology of the day (a seasonal catechesis), while the celebrant, if a bishop, removes the vestments of honor, or, if a priest, removes his cap. The gifts are transferred to the altar while the choir sings the Cherubic Hymn and the priest prays the corresponding Byzantine prayer “humbled, before the altar.” The gifts are incensed, the deacon exhorts the assembly (“With faith and holiness, let us pray before the holy altar of God, filled with profound dread … ”), and the priest prays the prayer of oblation.

Anaphora. The anaphora proper begins with a benediction and peace greeting. The deacon kisses the altar and the arms [sic] of the priest and then brings the greeting to the others. The eucharistic prayer, after the customary dialogue, again follows the classic West Syrian structure: thanksgiving narrative for creation and redemption, including the “Holy, holy,” and leading into the institution account, anamnēsis, epiklēsis, intercessions, and doxology. This prayer is interspersed with other prayers, blessings, greetings, and gestures (incense, signing with cross, etc.), and it includes seasonal commemorations as well.

Post-anaphora. The Lord’s Prayer and incensing of the people begins the Communion or post-anaphora. This is followed by a prayer of penitence addressed to the Holy Spirit. The gifts are presented to the people in a rather elaborate fashion: a Trinitarian benediction oft-repeated by deacon, choir, and people. The priest then invites all to Communion: “Let us partake holily of the holy, holy and precious body and blood of our Lord and Redeemer Jesus Christ, who, descended from heaven, is distributed among us. He is life, the hope of the resurrection, the expiation, and pardon of sins. Sing to the Lord our God … ” This last part is echoed by the deacon. Then, with the curtain drawn, the priest prepares to take Communion with a series of prayers and gestures, the longest prayer being that of John Chrysostom (“I give thee thanks, I exalt thee, I glorify thee, O Lord my God, thou hast rendered me worthy on this day to partake of thy divine and fearful sacrament … ”).

After Communion of the faithful, the priest blesses all (“Lord, save thy people, and bless thine inheritance … ”). The bishop, if presiding, puts on his episcopal robes. There are prayers of thanksgiving, a prayer for a blessing, the prologue of John read as the “last gospel,” a prayer for peace, and the final blessing. As is customary among the Byzantines, the Armenians to distribute blessed bread as the people leave.

Theology and Spirit

The tone of the Armenian liturgy is that of a “temple” liturgy, and throughout the text, it stresses the notion of sacrifice more than any other Eastern liturgy. References to the temple are clear and abundant. The hymn sung during the vesting proclaims that “holiness becomes thy dwelling since thou alone art enveloped in splendor.” After the confession and absolution of the priest, he prays: “Within the precincts of this temple … we adore with trembling.” And again: “In the tabernacle of holiness, and in the place of praise … we adore with trembling.” During the preparation of the offerings, the priest incenses and prays: “In the Lord’s temple, open to our offerings and our vows, united as we are to accomplish in obedience and in prayer the mystery of this approaching and august sacrifice, let us together march in triumph round the tribune of the holy temple … ” And he is clearly a temple priest who prays: “Thou hast confided to us the priesthood for this holy ministry and for thine unbloody sacrifice.”

References to the sacrifice are likewise clear and abundant. A prayer during the vesting reads: “Full of fear and awe we approach thee, to offer the sacrifice due to thine Omnipotence.” The deacon proclaims just before the eucharistic prayer: “Christ, the immaculate Lamb of God, offers himself as a victim.” The intercessions of the same prayer are introduced by: “Grant by virtue of this sacrifice … ”; and a thanksgiving prayer chanted by the deacon mentions sacrifice no less than four times.

The way the liturgy views the priest is consistent with both temple and sacrifice. In contrast to the Byzantine proskomidia, with its elaborate focus on the bread and wine as Christ, the Armenian introductory rites come to focus much more strongly on the priest. He confesses his sins (“I confess in the presence of God … all the sins I have committed”) and receives absolution (“May the all-powerful God have mercy on you, and grant you the pardon of all your sins … ”) before going ahead with his service. Prayers of purification are numerous.

In addition, the texts of the liturgy put a strong accent on the majesty of God. They are more than generous in speaking of God as profound, incomprehensible, boundless, infinite, inscrutable, etc., and thus worthy of glory power, worship, honor, praise.

Finally, note should be made of the place of the Holy Spirit in the Armenian liturgy. While it is common in both East and West to address the Spirit in the mode of invocation (epiklēsis, Veni Sancte Spiritus), the Armenian text addresses the Spirit in other forms of prayer as well. To give but one example, the blessing after the Lord’s prayer: “O Holy Spirit! Thou who are the source of life and of mercy, have pity on this people who, kneeling, adores thy Divinity … ,” with its adjoining doxology: “Through Jesus Christ our Lord, to who, as to thee, O Holy Spirit, and to the Almighty Father, belong glory … ”

Cost of discipleship

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More Christians have been martyred in the last 100 years than during the previous 19 centuries. In Third World countries, Islamic kingdoms, and Communist nations Christians have been killed by the millions. After World War I, for instance, over one million Armenian Christians were exterminated by the Turks. Today, in countries like Sudan, Muslim insurgents kill, enslave, and rape Christians almost at will. One of the most famous twentieth-century martyrs was Dietrich Bonhoeffer who fought for religious freedom in Nazi Germany. He was imprisoned and executed in 1945 as the war was coming to a close.

Impact: The early church leader Tertullian wrote during the Roman persecutions that “the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church.” What was true then is true today as the worldly sacrifice of brave Christians serves to inspire others to take their place and continue preaching the Gospel message.

Armenian Controversy

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Differences in doctrine developed similarly in the Netherlands. The Dutch provinces had won their independence when a truce was agreed upon with Spain in 1609. In spite of the struggle for existence, the country had prospered. Manufacturing and commerce made great strides, and populations increased. Dutch sailors rivaled the English on all the seas. Dutch Protestantism was of the Calvinistic type, and Calvinistic doctrine was taught in the universities. In 1602 Jacob Arminius became a professor at the University of Leyden. A colleague charged him with being lukewarm in his attitude toward the doctrine of predestination and an investigation followed. This aroused discussion and a national synod was planned to settle the controversy when Arminius suddenly died. His sympathizers then issued a Remonstrance, appealing to the provincial governments of Holland and Friesland for toleration. In their statement, they opposed five items among the famous five points of Calvinism. They modified the theory of unconditional election of certain human beings by the sovereign will of God by saying that election was based on the divine foreknowledge of a person’s faith. They asserted that the atonement of Christ was not limited to the few elect but was universal in its scope for all who would accept it. Instead of affirming human helplessness, they believed in spiritual regeneration. Over against the doctrine of divine grace as irresistible, they set the resistibility of salvation. And where the Calvinist insisted on the perseverance of the elect, Arminians were doubtful about perseverance. At last in 1618 the long-awaited Synod met at Dort. Eighty-four theologians and numerous secular officials composed its membership. Only three Arminians were present, and they were dismissed after a plea for toleration.

Impact: The Synod published ninety-three canons and endorsed the Belgic Confession of 1561 and the Heidelberg Catechism. The Remonstrants were required to accept the canons, give up their churches, and retire from the country. After a few years, milder counsels prevailed and some of them found a place again in the Dutch churches. The decisions of the Synod were accepted by Reformed churches elsewhere.