Anglican

Music in Traditional Churches During the Modern Era

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Through much of the nineteenth century, worship in liturgical churches followed largely low-church convictions. In the mid-nineteenth century and continuing into the twentieth, many of these churches began recovering ancient patterns of worship. In music, this meant the recovery of Gregorian chant in the Catholic church, the return of Lutherans to sixteenth-century liturgy forms, a movement in some Anglican churches away from Puritan-influenced worship to the recovery of catholic forms, and the trend in some free churches from revival-style worship to quasi-liturgical practices.

Worship Forms and Music in Diverse Churches

It has already been noted that, in its frontier culture, early American worship practices were exceedingly primitive. Concurrent with advances in education and in the arts, there was pressure in the older churches for the development and the standardization of worship forms. Following the War for Independence, all Protestant bodies severed their Old World connections. Nevertheless, worship design was frequently influenced by liturgical movements abroad as well as at home. At the same time, this interest in patterned worship came into direct conflict with the repeated outbreaks of revivalism. Through the years, there has been continuing tension between these two forces—formal versus spontaneous worship.

In the twentieth century, we have seen “thesis, antithesis, and synthesis” in the outworking of the struggle. Some groups are clearly “formal” or clearly “spontaneous” in worship habits. In other churches, a new interest in liturgy and liturgical symbolism has been coupled with a concern for Christian fellowship and a desire for spontaneity in worship.

The Liturgical Communions

Roman Catholic. Roman Catholic worship in America is not appreciably different from that in other parts of the world, and it did not change its basic patterns from the Council of Trent (1562) until the Second Vatican Council (1962). Nevertheless, there has been considerable diversity in the music which accompanies the liturgy.

Little is known about Roman Catholic music in the thirteen colonies. In 1787, A Compilation of the Litanies, Vespers, Hymns and Anthems As They Are Sung in the Catholic Church was published in Philadelphia by John Aitken, containing litanies, historic hymns, psalms, anthems, a Mass of the Blessed Trinity, a requiem mass (in plainsong), and a Solemn Mass with musical settings in both Latin and English. In the nineteenth century, new waves of Catholic immigrants came to these shores, mostly from very humble circumstances in Europe. Consequently, their musical expectations were very limited, and in most churches there was no singing at all.

In those that supported choral music, the preference was for nineteenth-century operatic styles, in many instances performed by a quartet choir. In a few dioceses, beginning in the late nineteenth century, the influence of John B. Singenberger (1848–1924) and his Cecilian Society led to musical reform. Like the parent Cecilian movement in Germany, this group espoused the revival of Gregorian chant, a return to a cappella polyphonic forms, and vernacular congregational singing. However, its influence was chiefly felt in the German communities of Cincinnati, Chicago, and Milwaukee. Most Catholics in typical parish churches continued to favor the spoken mass, and singing occurred only in the popular novena services.

Lutheran. Lutherans have brought many different national and regional traditions to this country. Those who found homes in the East lost their ethnic language and identity more quickly than those who settled later in the Midwest. Consequently, Lutheran worship (and especially its hymnody) along the Atlantic seaboard was more Anglo-American than German or Scandinavian. Many adherents had been identified with the pietist movements within European Lutheranism, and in this country that influence was intensified by revivalist activity. In the mid-nineteenth century, a growing disaffection with revival-influenced worship was fed by the sentiments of new European immigrants. The widespread desire to recover their confessional roots resulted in a conference of all Lutheran groups which adopted a Common Service in 1888, based on “the common consent of the pure Lutheran liturgies of the sixteenth century.” Nevertheless, there continued to be considerable variation in Lutheran worship, since conformity was not obligatory. In the late twentieth century, there seems to be a growing preference for a completely vernacular version of Martin Luther’s Formula missae as evidenced in the ecumenical Lutheran Book of Worship (1978).

American Lutherans inherited the European preference for an ante-Communion service. Through the nineteenth century, the full Eucharist was observed only a few times each year. In recent years, Holy Communion has been offered more frequently, and the historic Lutheran Matins service has also been used, perhaps once each month. In the nineteenth century, congregational singing was the musical norm. In the East, Anglo-American hymn traditions prevailed, while the Midwest churches perpetuated their German or Scandinavian hymnody. In recent years, Lutherans countrywide have shown a desire to share their unique ethnic traditions while preserving their common Reformation heritage. In addition, thanks largely to the efforts of Concordia Publishing Company, choirs are using plainsong, as well as polyphonic styles, in singing the “propers” of the liturgy.

Anglican. Established in the colony of Virginia in the early seventeenth century, the Church of England in America was organically united to the bishoprics of Canterbury and York. The church grew rapidly and by the time of the American Revolution was the dominant religious force in this country. After the Declaration of Independence, Anglicans in the United States formed an independent Protestant Episcopal Church, linked only in heritage and in fellowship with the Anglican Communion worldwide. In colonial days, and even much later, Anglicans used the services of morning and evening prayer almost exclusively, with Communion being observed only three or four times a year. The American Book of Common Prayer was derived from Cranmer’s Prayer Book of 1549 (through the Scottish Book of Common Prayer) and was less Calvinistic than the 1552 and 1662 books that were commonly used in England.

According to Leonard Ellinwood, the music of colonial Anglican worship was scarcely different from that of the Puritans in New England and consisted mostly of metrical psalms sung with the aid of a precentor. Anglican chant was introduced during the last two decades of the eighteenth century, and its use became common within a short time. There is further record that organs began to be used in the 1700s, playing a voluntary following the “Psalms of the day” and an offertory for receiving the collection. A few choirs (with boys singing the treble parts) also appeared during the eighteenth century. All of the extant music from that period is related to the services of Matins and Vespers.

In the mid-nineteenth century, the Episcopal church was influenced by the ideas of the Oxford Movement, which brought back much of orthodox theology and liturgy into a number of British churches—reviving the ancient Greek and Latin hymns in English translations, Gregorian chant, and the use of symbolism in vestments, furnishings, and liturgical action. This worship revolution, together with the advent of liberal theology in another group of Anglican churches, eventually resulted in the development of three Anglican parties in England in the late nineteenth century: (1) the Anglo-Catholics, who were closest to Rome in theology and worship practice; (2) the Low churchmen, many of whom were strongly evangelical in emphasis, rejecting the Oxford movement as “popish,” and (3) the Broad churches, who tended to be moderate in the liturgy but liberal in theology, emphasizing social reform rather than personal salvation. In America, Episcopal churches have tended to be high or low in liturgy, but only a few are as evangelical as their British counterparts. Beginning in the late 1970s, however, a significant number of evangelicals from free church traditions have entered the Episcopal church, in some cases influencing parishes in a low-church direction, in others uniting evangelical theology with high liturgical practice.

After 1850, a number of American churches adopted the principles of the Oxford movement, using vested choirs (of boys and men) and substituting plainsong for Anglican chant. However, the quartet-choir was more common—a volunteer group of men and women led by four soloists, which often degenerated into just a quartet, singing mostly romantic services and anthems by European, and later, American composers. The most-used compositions were written by such well-known musicians as Mendelssohn, Gounod, Gaul, Mozart, Boyce, Stainer, Parker, Shelley, Rossini, and Buck, and others who are now forgotten—Hodges, Naumann, Larkin, Bridgewater, Hatton, and Gilbert.

In the early twentieth century, Anglican churches outside the United States experienced a musical renaissance under the influence of such composers as Charles Stanford, Hubert Parry, Charles Wood, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Walford Davies, and the Canada-based Healey Willan. Increasingly, their music (both service music and anthems) has also been favored in American Episcopal churches, along with the works of American composers Leo Sowerby, T. Tertius Noble, David Mck. Williams, Thomas Matthews, and others. During this century, the outstanding leader in Episcopal church music has been Charles Winfred Douglas (1867–1944). An ordained priest in the church, he was long a member of the Episcopal Joint Commission on Church Music and the Hymnal Commission, serving as music editor for the denomination’s hymnals of 1916 and 1940. A frequent lecturer on church music, he founded the Evergreen Conference in Colorado and presided over its annual School of Church Music.

In very recent times, the Episcopal church has adopted a new liturgy which, while retaining its essential Anglican character, has returned to the basic outline of the historic mass. For example, the Gloria in excelsis has been returned to the early part of the service, and much of the evangelical text of the eucharistic prayer has been restored.

Nonliturgical Churches—Revivalist vs. “Pseudo-Liturgical” Worship

Methodism in England resulted from an eighteenth-century schism in the Anglican Church, precipitated by the preaching of John and Charles Wesley. Worship among Methodists varied from group to group, from the low-church style of the Church of England to the unstructured pattern of Baptists. Although many of the Calvinist and Wesleyan groups in Europe and Great Britain followed traditional worship patterns, their American successors—Presbyterian, Methodist, Evangelical, and Reformed—tended to adopt the freedom of the nonliturgical Congregationalists and Baptists. For some this meant a revivalist format; others developed what I choose to call a “pseudo-liturgical” pattern. These two styles are still common in many American churches.

We have already narrated in detail the story of American revival movements and the resultant worship tradition which lingered in many churches. Following is their basic service outline, although the most significant feature was a sense of freedom and spontaneity generated by the leadership of “charismatic” personalities.

• Hymns (a group, often not related to each other or to the sermon, led by a “song leader”)
• Prayer (brief)
• Welcome and announcements
• Special music (choir, solo, or small group)
• Offering
• Solo
• Sermon
• Invitation (Hymn)
• Dismissal (Benediction)

Revivalist free churches in the nineteenth century tended to favor gospel songs for congregational singing, with a sprinkling of traditional hymns from English and American authors. If the choir literature developed beyond those same hymnic boundaries, they tended to use “chorus choir” selections—two-page settings (found in the hymnal or songbook) in the style of extended hymns or abbreviated anthems.

Other free churches evidenced a broader concept of worship, particularly as the influence of revivalism waned and liturgical movements abroad and at home came to their attention. They moved toward a pattern that has some kinship to the ante-Communion service of Lutheranism or the Liturgy of the Word in an Anglican Eucharist.

Choral and solo literature in the early twentieth century tended to fall into the same mold as that of Episcopal (and even Roman Catholic) churches of that period. Congregational singing was often limited to one or two selections in a service and tended to use the standard hymns of British and American authors; gospel hymns were often standard fare on Sunday evening, for Sunday School, and in other informal services. Until later in the twentieth century, organists relied heavily on the music of romantic composers, including transcriptions of popular orchestral works.

Like the liturgical fellowships, free churches tended to use the quartet-choir when their budget permitted it; their choices in literature were also similar. Instrumental music varied according to the size and affluence of the individual group: pipe organs with trained performers for the larger, wealthier congregations and reed organs and amateur organists for the smaller and less prosperous.

As the twentieth century progressed, free churches broadened the scope of their music—congregational, choral, and instrumental—though there is marked variance within both traditional and revivalist groups. Hymnody now includes materials from the entire Christian heritage, American and European. Choral and organ performance covers the entire historic literature, from the Renaissance period through the contemporary. In addition, our century has encouraged the emergence of a large group of “functional” church music composers, who supply materials in every conceivable style for every possible taste. Nowadays only a few evangelical churches employ a quartet of professional singers, partly because of the high musical competence of many members in the congregation. In the early twentieth century, following the example of revivalists of that day, pianos replaced the reed organ in small churches and joined forces with the pipe organ in the larger. With the advent of electronic organs in 1935, many small congregations were financially able to add that sound to their worship experience for the first time. All in all, American churches today have more music activity—with more choirs and instruments, and larger budgets—than those in any other country in the world.

Music of the Reformation

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The reforms in music which attended the reform of worship in the Reformation ranged widely from the rejection of all instruments and the restriction of singing solely to the Psalms to the choral Eucharists of the Anglicans.

Christian Worship in the Reformation

During the Middle Ages, worship had developed into an elaborate ritual which evidenced serious distortions of apostolic standards, according to the Reformers, in both theology and practice. The following five developments were especially troubling to the Reformers.

(1) The Liturgy of the Word had little significance. Although provision was made for Scripture reading and a homily in the vernacular, a sermon was rarely heard since most local priests were too illiterate to be capable of preaching.

(2) Typical worshipers understood little of what was being said or sung since the service was in Latin. Their own vocal participation was almost nonexistent.

(3) The Eucharist was no longer a joyful action of the whole congregation; it had become the priestly function of the celebrant alone. The congregation’s devotion (mixed with superstition) was focused on the host (the bread) itself, on seeing the offering of the sacrifice, or on private prayers (e.g., the rosary).

(4) Each celebration of the Mass was regarded as a separate offering of the body and blood of Christ. The emphasis was limited to Christ’s death, with scant remembrance of his resurrection and second coming. Furthermore, the custom of offering votive masses for particular individuals and purposes became common.

(5) The Roman Canon was not a prayer of thanksgiving, but rather a long petition that voiced repeated pleas that God would receive the offering of the Mass, generating a spirit of fear lest it not be accepted. As a result, most of the congregation took Communion only once a year. On many occasions, only the officiating priests received the bread and the cup.

Our look at the worship of the Reformation churches will include a consideration of the German, English, and French-Swiss traditions. However, none of these was the first expression of rebellion against Rome. The Unitas Fratrum (United Brethren), which began under John Hus in Bohemia, had its own liturgical and musical expressions. However, the reforms that were begun in this movement were aborted because of the death of Hus, who was burned at the stake in 1415.

The Lutheran Reformation

Martin Luther’s quarrel with Rome had more to do with the sacerdotal interpretation of the Mass and the resultant abuses which accompanied it than with the structure of the liturgy itself. For him, the Communion service was a sacrament (God’s grace extended to man). A musician himself, he loved the great music and the Latin text which graced the mass. Consequently, in his first reformed liturgy—Formula missae et communionis (1523)—much of the historic mass outline remains. Luther (1483–1546) is remembered as the individual who gave the German people the Bible and the hymnbook in their own language in order to recover the doctrine of believer-priesthood. He also restored the sermon to its central place in the Liturgy of the Word. But in the Formula missae, only the hymns, Scripture readings, and sermons were in the vernacular; the rest continued to be in Latin. He achieved his theological purposes relating to the communion by removing many acts of the Liturgy. All that remained were the Preface and the Words of Institution.

The German Mass (Deutscher messe, 1526) was more drastic in its iconoclasm and may have been encouraged by some of Luther’s more radical associates. In it, many of the historic Latin songs were replaced by vernacular hymn versions set to German folksong melodies.

Throughout the sixteenth century, most Lutheran worship used a variant of the Western liturgy. The Formula missae was the norm for cathedrals and collegiate churches, and the German Mass was common in smaller towns and rural churches. Twentieth-century Lutherans tend to agree that Luther was excessively ruthless in the excisions made in the Communion service. Consequently, in recent service orders, they have recovered much of the pattern and texts of the third and fourth-century eucharistic prayers, while still retaining their Reformational and Lutheran theological emphasis.

We have already mentioned Luther’s love of the historic music of the church. In the Formula missae, the choir sang the traditional psalms, songs, and prayers in Latin to Gregorian chant or in polyphonic settings. They also functioned in leading the congregation in the new unaccompanied chorales. Later, they sang alternate stanzas of the chorales in four- and five-part settings by Johann Walther, published in 1524 in the Church Chorale Book. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the choir made significant new contributions to worship in the singing of motets, passions, and cantatas.

The treble parts of the choral music were sung by boys who were trained in the “Latin” (parochial and cathedral) schools. The lower parts were sung by Latin school “alumni” or by members of the Kantorei—a voluntary social-musical organization that placed its services at the disposal of the church. Where there was no choir, the congregation was led by a “cantor.” That title, meaning “chief singer,” was also given to a musical director of large churches such as J. S. Bach, whose career culminated with service to churches in Leipzig from 1723 to 1750.

Luther seems to have been indifferent to (and occasionally critical of) the organ in divine worship, as were most Roman Catholic leaders of that period. As in the Roman church, the organ gave “intonations” for the unaccompanied liturgical singing and also continued the alternatim practice in the chorales. The “intonation” for the congregational chorales developed into what we know as a “chorale prelude.” Later, as composing techniques moved toward homophonic styles with the melody in the soprano, the organ took over the responsibility of leading the congregation in the chorales.

Luther felt that the multiple services of the medieval offices had become an “intolerable burden.” Since monasteries had been abolished, he prescribed that only the most significant morning and evening “hours”—Matins and Vespers—would be observed daily in local churches. However, office worship never really caught on among Lutherans. The practice soon died out and has only recently been revived, with moderate success. For non-eucharistic worship, Luther’s followers have preferred a shortened Mass called an “ante-Communion,” which simply omits the Lord’s Supper observance from the regular liturgy.

The Reformation in England

The early impetus for the Reformation in England was more political than spiritual. This was partly evident in the fact that for years after Henry VIII broke with the pope (1534) and assumed himself the leadership of the English (Anglican) church, the Latin Roman Mass continued to be used without change. However, during the ensuing years, evangelical thought became more widespread and after Henry’s death in 1547, Archbishop Cranmer (1489–1556) set about to devise a truly reformed English liturgy.

The first Book of Common Prayer was released in 1549, the title (“common”) indicating that worship was now to be congregational. This vernacular Mass retained much of the form of the Roman rite, with drastic revision only in the Canon (eucharistic prayer), because of the rejection of the concepts of transubstantiation and sacrifice. A significant number of Anglicans (especially Anglo-Catholics) still express regret that this rite never became the norm for the Church of England. As was true in Lutheran Germany, popular opinion seemed to demand even more drastic revision, and three years later another prayer book was published. Much of the influence for the more radical trend came from the Calvinist movement in Strasbourg and Geneva.

In the Prayer Book of 1552, the word Mass was dropped as the title of the worship form, vestments were forbidden, and altars were replaced by Communion tables. The Agnus Dei, the Benedictus, and the Peace were all excised from the liturgy, and the Gloria in excelsis Deo was placed near the end of the service. Thus the beginning of the ritual became basically personal and penitential, losing the corporate expression of praise and thanksgiving. The introit, gradual, offertory song, and Communion song were replaced by congregational psalms in metrical versions and later by hymns. In comparison with the “Liturgy of the Eucharist” that Roman Catholics used c. 1500, the greatest difference lies in the very-much shortened eucharistic prayer.

During the brief reign of “Bloody Mary” (1553–1558), the Roman Catholic faith and worship were reinstated, and many Protestant leaders were burned at the stake or beheaded. Others fled to such European refuges as Frankfort and Geneva, where they came under the influence of John Calvin and John Knox. When they returned to their native country, they brought with them an even more radical revisionist attitude that eventually showed itself in the Puritan movement within the Church of England and the emerging of Nonconformist churches (Presbyterian, Independent, and Baptist). With the death of Mary, Queen Elizabeth I sought to heal the wounds of her broken country and to bring papists, traditionalists, and Puritans together. Under her leadership, the prayer book was revised in 1559. Some worship practices found in the 1549 version were restored, though the changes were slight. Vestments, for example, were once again permitted.

The Puritan movement gathered increasing momentum during the close of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century. In worship, its emphasis was on “scriptural simplicity”—no choral or instrumental music, no written liturgy, and no symbolism (vestment, liturgical movement, etc.), much after the pattern of John Calvin’s Geneva. Eventually, the group developed enough political strength to overthrow the king and set up a republic. In 1645 the Prayer Book was replaced by the Directory for the Plain Worship of God in the Three Kingdoms. For a brief period, the choral and instrumental worship of the church went into complete limbo.

In 1660 Charles II was placed on the throne. He immediately brought the prayer book back into use. Soon a new revision (1662) was brought out; it made no substantial changes in the old version, retaining basically the 1552 worship outline, and that book became the norm for the Church of England for the next 300 years. It remains basically the same today, though there is considerable sentiment for a thorough revision.

We have already noted Luther’s purpose pertaining to the continuance of the two “offices” Matins and Vespers as public, daily services of non-eucharistic worship. This practice was also adopted by Archbishop Cranmer for the English church, and liturgies for these services appeared in each of the prayer books mentioned above. As in the old Roman tradition, the emphasis was on the reading and singing of Scripture; the Psalter was to be sung through each month, the Old Testament read through each year, and the New Testament twice each year. In making this service completely “English,” the revisions of 1552 and 1662 had changed the titles of the services to “Morning Prayer” and “Evening Prayer,” placed a general confession and absolution (assurance of pardon) at the beginning, added the Jubilate Deo (Psalm 100) as a regular canticle plus an anthem, with four collects and a general thanksgiving as the prayers. In common practice, a sermon is also included, and this service has been for many Anglicans the “preferred” option for typical Sunday worship.

The 1549 Prayer Book had stressed the requirement that Communion was not to be celebrated unless communicants were present and participating, and specified that members in good standing would receive Communion at least three times a year. The 1552 prayer book indicated that “ante-Communion”—the same service but omitting the eucharistic prayer and Communion—would also be observed on Sundays and “holy days.” Because, like Lutherans, most Anglicans retained the medieval sense of awe and fear in receiving Communion, non-eucharistic services tended to be the most popular in Anglican worship until recent times.

We have already noted that congregational hymns became the norm of Protestant musical worship under Luther. In the early development of the English reformation church, this possibility was considered, and Bishop Myles Coverdale made an English translation of certain German and Latin hymns together with metrical versions of psalms and other liturgical material in a volume Goostly psalms and spiritual songs (1543), intended for use in private chapels and homes. But, eventually, the Lutheran example was rejected in favor of the Calvinist standard—metrical psalms. In 1549, a Thomas Sternhold, the robe-keeper to Henry VIII (Albert E. Bailey, The Gospel in Hymns [New York: Scribner, 1950], 7) published a small collection of nineteen psalms without music. By 1562, with the help of J. Hopkins, Sternhold completed the entire Psalter, which was named for its compilers. “Sternhold and Hopkins” remained in use (along with others) for more than two hundred years.

Psalm singing received added impetus during the exile of English Protestants in Geneva during the reign of Mary, Queen of Scots. There they produced a number of versions of the Anglo-Genevan Psalter, with tunes, beginning in 1556. This book was based on Sternhold and Hopkins with certain additions of texts (and especially tunes) from the French psalters of Calvin. In the early eighteenth century, English Nonconformists began to write and sing psalm paraphrases and “hymns of human composure,” beginning with Isaac Watts (1674–1748). But free hymns were not widely accepted in Anglicanism until well into the nineteenth century.

Particularly in the services of morning and evening prayer, the Psalms were regularly sung in prose version; this was also true of the Canticles (Benedictus, Te Deum, Magnificat, Nunc Dimittis). For this purpose, in the seventeenth century a new “Anglican chant” was produced, based on small snatches of Gregorian melody and sung in four-part harmony.

Despite its rejection of Luther’s hymns, the English church followed the example of the Lutherans in adapting the choir to its new Protestant patterns, particularly in the “cathedral tradition.” From almost the beginning of Anglicanism, the choir was retained to lead the congregation, but also to sing alone, as in a Choral Eucharist. In the sixteenth century, the Tudor composers who had produced Latin masses (e.g., William Byrd, John Merbecke, Thomas Tallis, Richard Farrant) began to set portions of the new prayer book services. A complete “service” included music for Holy Communion as well as for the canticles of morning and evening prayer. Anglican services have been written by British (and other) composers in every generation. These services are not performed in their entirety in one service as is the Latin mass, but they are published together for liturgical use in larger Anglican (including Episcopalian) churches.

In addition, the Anglican heritage made a unique contribution to church music in the anthem—originally an English motet, whose name is derived from “antiphon.” So-called anthems existed before 1550, but they remained in disfavor until the Restoration. In the prayer book of 1662, they are acknowledged to be a regular part of worship in churches that boasted a choir.

In the English tradition, it may be said that provision is made for a wide variety of musical tastes. In the parish church, congregational singing is central even though a modest choir may in some instances be available to sing an anthem and to lead the hymns and chants. In the cathedral setting, certain services are essentially choral, with less congregational participation. These services give the opportunity for the very finest examples of choral art to be used.

Both Anglicans and Lutherans continued to observe the liturgical calendar with its festivals and holy days. In both the eucharistic services and the offices, the “Ordinary” remained fairly constant throughout the year. The “Propers” provided Scripture readings, prayers, responses, and “sermon emphases” which changed according to the season and the day involved.

Worship in the Calvinist Tradition

In Reformation times, the most severe reaction to traditional Roman Catholic worship came in the Calvinist tradition; for this reason, it is closely related to modern evangelical practice. But first, we must look briefly at some of John Calvin’s predecessors.

Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531), whose reform leadership centered in Zurich, was more of a rationalist-humanist than Luther or Calvin, both of whom shared the medieval scholastic tradition. Consequently, Zwinglian worship tended to be more didactic than devotional. His typical morning service resembled the ancient Prone liturgy, consisting of Scripture reading (Epistle and Gospel), preaching, and a long prayer. In the first German liturgy of 1525, music was eliminated completely (although Zwingli himself was an accomplished musician); however, psalms and canticles were recited responsively. The Communion service was celebrated four times a year, with the congregation seated as for a family meal. The Eucharist service had no true eucharistic prayer and no prayer of intercession; it consisted of an exhortation, “Fencing of the Table,” the Lord’s Prayer, the prayer of “humble access,” words of institution, ministers’ Communion, Communion of the people, psalm, collect, Dismissal. According to Zwingli, the Eucharist was only “the congregation confessing its faith in obedience to our Lord’s command.”

Martin Bucer (1491–1551), a follower of Zwingli, developed quite a different tradition when he was put in charge of Reformed worship in Strasbourg in 1535. Prior to that time, the city had been dominated by Lutheranism. Consequently, Bucer’s liturgy of 1537 seems to combine Lutheran and Zwinglian elements. He retained the optional Kyrie and Gloria in Excelsis, though in time these were replaced by psalms or hymns. The Communion service included intercessions as well as a Prayer of Consecration.

When John Calvin (1509–1564) first preached and taught at Geneva, he evidently followed no set form of worship, and the service was entirely without music. When he was banished from Geneva in 1538, he went to be pastor of the French exiles in Strasbourg. He was quite impressed with Bucer’s German rite and, according to his own admission, “borrowed the greater part of it” for his own French liturgy of 1540. Later when he returned to Geneva, this liturgy was simplified slightly, becoming the Geneva rite of 1542 and the basis for Calvinist worship in all of Europe—Switzerland, France, Germany, Netherlands, and Scotland.

The medieval eucharistic vestments were discarded. (The traditional black cassock now worn by Presbyterian ministers is essentially a reminder that Calvin preached in his overcoat because the cathedral at Geneva was unheated!) Indeed, all the traditional Roman symbolism was stripped from the building. A Calvinist “processional” (particularly in Scotland) is headed by a deacon carrying the Bible into the sanctuary to place it on the pulpit. Calvin ignored the church calendar (except for the principal feast days) and with it the lectionary of readings. The Scripture was read-only to serve as a basis for the sermon.

Calvin’s ideas about the Eucharist were not radically different from those of Luther, though he rejected the idea of “consubstantiation.” He too saw the Eucharist as a sacrament and desired that it would be celebrated weekly as part of a full service of Word and Eucharist. But this was not to be, because many of the French Reformed leaders (including the magistrates at Geneva) had a more narrow view of Communion. Indeed, they restricted its observance to four times a year, despite Calvin’s persistent objections.

Calvin is most frequently criticized for his actions restricting music in worship. He discarded the choir and its literature completely, and Calvinist iconoclasts removed the organs from the formerly Catholic churches. As mentioned earlier, worship in Geneva had no singing at all, and Calvin complained about the resultant “cold tone” in the services. When he went to Strasbourg, he was pleased with the German Psalm versions he found in the congregations there, whereupon he set several Psalms himself in metrical French to tunes of Mattheus Greiter and Wolfgang Dachstein. These were included with his Strasbourg service book, The Form of Prayers and Manner of Ministering the Sacraments According to the Use of the Ancient Church (1640).

Later he commissioned the French court poet Clement Marot to set all the Psalms in meter, which resulted in the historic Genevan Psalter (1562). The Psalms were sung by the congregation in unison and without accompaniment. (Four-part settings of the Marot Psalms were composed by Sweelinck, Jannequin, and Goudimel, but they were heard only in the home and in educational circles.) Music editor for the volume was Louis Bourgeois (c. 1510–c. 1561), who adapted tunes from French and German secular sources and no doubt composed some himself.

This is not the place to debate Calvin’s decision for the Psalms and against hymns, in the light of his dictum “Only God’s Word is worthy to be used in God’s praise.” No doubt he was reacting strongly to the complex, verbose Roman liturgy, with its many “tropes” and “sequence” hymns. He did not have all the writings of the early church fathers at his disposal, from which he might have learned the significance of the New Testament “hymns and spiritual songs” (which in the early patristic period were not part of the biblical canon) and of the successors of those forms in the early church. The Calvinist tradition of singing Psalms was also inherited by the Anglican church and by early free churches in both England and America. It has persisted in some places to the present day.

Worship in the Free Church Tradition

In the closing years of the sixteenth century, the passion for religious reform was most intense in the most radical of the English Puritans. They are known historically as the Separatists since they intended to part company with the established Anglican church. When they did so, they were more iconoclastic than Calvin himself, reducing worship to something less than the essentials! They rejected all established liturgical forms. When they met together (in barns, in forests and fields, or in houses on back alleys, as such gatherings were forbidden by law), their services included only prayer and the exposition of Scripture. Prayer was always spontaneous; not even the Lord’s Prayer was used, since it was considered to be only a model for Christian improvising.

The early Separatists evidently had no music, but eventually, they began to sing unaccompanied metrical psalms. When it was possible for them to celebrate Communion, the appointed pastor broke the bread and delivered the cup, which was then passed to every member of the group while the leader repeated the words of 1 Corinthians 11:23–26. There is also a record that on such occasions an offering was received at the end of the service, by men who held their “hats in hand.”

The Separatists followed several traditions under a number of dynamic leaders, and eventually formed the churches known as Presbyterian, Independent (Congregational), and Baptist. Their negative attitude about earlier music is expressed in a quote from John Vicar in 1649, who was speaking as a convinced Puritan, but still an Anglican: … the most rare and strange alteration of things in the Cathedral Church of Westminster. Namely, that whereas there was wont to be heard nothing almost by Roaring-Boys, tooting and squeaking Organ Pipes, and the Cathedral catches of Moreley, and I know not what trash, now the Popish Altar is quite taken away, the bellowing organs are demolished and pull’d down; the treble or rather trouble and base singers, Chanters or Inchanters, driven out, and instead thereof, there is now a most blessed Orthodox Preaching Ministry, even every morning throughout the Week, and every Week throughout the year a Sermon Preached by the most learned grace and godly Ministers.

Anabaptists (“re-baptizers,” who insisted that baptism was only for adult believers) appeared both on the Continent and in Great Britain in the late sixteenth century. Records of a group in Holland in 1608 indicate that a typical service consisted of the following.

• Prayer
• Scripture (one or two chapters, with a running commentary on its meaning)
• Prayer
• Sermon (one hour, on a text)
• Spoken contributions by others present (as many as would)
• Prayer (led by the principal leader)
• Offering

It is not surprising that such a service often lasted as long as four hours. Sunday worship ran from about 8 a.m. to noon, and again from 2 p.m. to 5 or 6 p.m. (See Horton Davies, Worship and Theology in England, vol. 2 [Princeton: Princeton University, 1975], 89)

English Baptists were by no means of one mind theologically. They divided into General Baptists (more Arminian in theology), Calvinistic Baptists (John Bunyan belonged to this group), Seventh-day Baptists (who worshiped on Saturday), and Particular Baptist (radically Calvinist). For all of them, the typical worship consisted of the ministry of the Word (reading and exposition), extemporized prayer (lengthy—no collects) with a congregational “amen,” and possibly metrical psalms sung to open and to close the service.

There is evidence that in some churches the only music was sung by a single individual “who had a special gift.” John Bunyan once argued that open congregational singing could not fulfill the standard of Colossians 3:16 because some might participate who did not have “grace in the heart.” As late as 1690, Benjamin Keach (1640–1704) had difficulty persuading his own congregation to sing in unison. However, he did prevail, and it is said that he was the first to introduce hymns (in addition to psalms) to an English congregation. He wrote the first hymn to be sung at the conclusion of the Lord’s Supper, “following the example of Christ and his disciples in the upper room.” Beyond this, we have little indication of how Baptists celebrated Communion, except, ironically, that it was a weekly occurrence.

Evangelicals are in large part the successors of the Separatist movement, and in many instances have inherited the anti-Romanist, anti-liturgical, and anti-aesthetic attitudes of their forebears. It may help one understand why these prejudices are so deeply ingrained to remember that our forefathers were moved by a strong spiritual commitment to evangelism. Furthermore, as dissenters, they endured constant persecution by the Puritan/Anglican regime (or the Lutheran or Calvinist) under which they lived. To disobey the law by leading in clandestine worship was to risk a heavy fine and lengthy imprisonment.

Summary

This article, along with the others that have preceded it, has traced our worship-practice roots, from New Testament times through 1600 years of the history of the Christian church, ending with the Reformation and finally, the emergence of free churches. The purpose has been to show our universal Christian heritage, as well as the unique tradition of each individual fellowship.

To be sure, there is a common, universal heritage. We have seen that material from Scripture was the basis of musical worship in all medieval services. We have also traced the evangelical emphasis on preaching from New Testament times and the early church fathers, through the medieval Prone, the reformed services of Luther and Calvin, and the worship of the Separatists. All Christians continue to experience a Liturgy of the Word and a Liturgy of the Eucharist, though most Reformed and free churches have perpetuated the medieval reluctance to participate in Communion on a frequent basis. Furthermore, particularly in the free-church tradition, occasional observance tends to give the impression that the Lord’s Supper is an appendage that is not central to full-orbed worship. Most evangelical scholars agree that the early church celebrated the Eucharist each Lord’s Day. It may be that the free churches should face up to the question as to whether or not, in this matter, they are living up to their claim to be the New Testament church.

All the changes brought by the Reformation were responses to the sincere desire to be more “evangelical.” Obviously, the reaction of the free (Separatist) bodies was the most radical, but it tended to be tempered (as in the matter of the use of music) within a few years. Nevertheless, some of the attitudes and practices which began at that time have haunted certain free church groups ever since. It is important that we distinguish true evangelical reform from blind iconoclasm. In recent years, many Christian groups have taken a new look at their heritage and have tended to reinterpret those reforms.

An Anglican/Episcopal Theology of Worship

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Anglican worship emphasizes the incarnational and sacramental motifs of the Christian faith. God was embodied in Jesus Christ. Thus, in worship, the church incarnates in a visible and tangible form the embodiment of God in Jesus Christ for the salvation of the world.

The Episcopal Church, like the other national and regional churches which comprise the Anglican Communion, does not have an official theology of worship. It does have an official practice set forth in The Book of Common Prayer in its various editions from 1549 until the present. Anglican theology of worship is derived from its official liturgical practice.

In The Book of Common Prayer of 1979 the American Episcopal Church says, “The Holy Eucharist, the principal act of Christian worship on the Lord’s Day and other major Feasts, and Daily Morning and Evening Prayer … are the regular services of public worship in this Church.” (Book of Common Prayer, 13). The pattern of worship there set forth is daily prayer, preferably in common, and the weekly celebration of a service of Word and Sacrament.

Anglican theology has often been described as incarnational or sacramental and this is especially true of its theology of worship which uses the words and actions of an “outward and visible” rite as the symbol and the means of entering into an “inward and spiritual” relationship with God in Christ (Book of Common Prayer, 857). Worship is therefore embodied. It is something that we do, not only with our minds but with our entire being. We stand, we sit, we kneel, we bow, we lift our hands and our voices. We look, we listen, we sing, we speak, we remain silent. We smell and we taste. What often appears to be an undue concern with the external aspects of worship by Anglicans, however badly it may be expressed in particular cases, derives from this central theological conviction that it is by entering into the symbolic activity of the liturgy that we are drawn by the action of the Holy Spirit into the very center of the divine mystery, there to lay all that we have and are and hope to be before the throne of grace as members one of another in Jesus Christ.

It is in the coming together of the people of God to hear the Word and celebrate the sacraments that we become the body of Christ, that Christ our Head becomes present in our midst, and that we participate in his Paschal victory over death. Christ’s promise to be present in the midst of the assembly “where two or three are gathered in my name,” (Matt. 18:20, RSV) stands as the primary foundation of worship, which is a corporate activity of the Christian people in which we encounter the living God. Its principal parts include the reading and proclamation of the Word, prayer in Jesus’ name, and the celebration of the sacraments, of which baptism and Holy Communion are the chiefs.

In worship, we as a gathered community remember the mighty acts of God in Christ by which we are saved, in all their power, virtue, and effect, and offer our lives—“our selves, our souls and bodies” (Book of Common Prayer, 336) to God in praise and thanksgiving. This very act contains elements of penitence for sin, acknowledgment of our own unworthiness, and fervent petition and intercession for the needs of all humanity, including ourselves and those we love, for it is only as we are spiritually united to Christ in the power of his risen life and through the activity of the Holy Spirit that we are emboldened to make this response to the divine initiative.

In baptism we are reborn by water and the Spirit to a new life as the children of God, passing over with Christ through death to life, and in holy Eucharist, the anamnesis (commemorative celebration) of the sacrifice of Christ makes us partakers of the benefits of Christ’s death and resurrection. As our bodies are fed by the bread and wine over which we have given thanks in obedience to Christ’s command, “Do this in remembrance of me,” (Luke 22:19; 1 Cor. 11:24), so our souls are nourished by the body and blood of Christ and we are united with Him and with one another in his mystical body.

From this theological center, worship moves out to the celebration of this saving mystery in the daily praise of Morning and Evening Prayer and its application to the critical moments in the lives of individual Christians in pastoral offices such as marriage, ministry to the sick, rites of reconciliation, and burial services, drawing every aspect of life into unity with God in Christ through the church, so that all may be offered in union with the perfect self-offering of Christ. It is from this center that we receive, in turn, the power of Christ’s victory, so that we may become what St. Paul declares us to be (1 Cor. 12:27)—the body of Christ in the world.

A Post-Reformation Model of Worship: John Wesley’s Sunday Service

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The service below is strongly dependent on the 1662 Book of Common Prayer.

Introduction

Wesley was an Anglican priest and organized the Methodists into small groups for prayer, Bible study, and worship. These groups would continue to worship in Anglican parishes on Sunday.

Text:

The Order for the Administration of the Lord’s Supper

The Table at the Communion-time, having a fair white Linen Cloth upon it, shall stand where Morning and Evening Prayers are appointed to be said. And the Elder, standing at the Table, shall say the Lord’s Prayer, with the Collect following the People kneeling.

Commentary: Early Methodists often worshiped in rather plain settings. Their society room or preaching house was generally a multipurpose room of simple construction: it may have been a barn, school, factory, or theater which was converted to the cause of the revival. Wesley’s Chapel, on City Road, London, with its rose-colored marble columns and white lacquered woodwork, was the exception to this pattern. In most instances, rather than ornate surroundings and lofty cathedral music, the liturgy, sermon, congregational song, and sacrament marked off sacred space by creating a sense of the presence of God and communion among Christians. Ironically, this Sunday Service does not designate where the Wesleyan hymns were to be used in the liturgy, but they certainly were utilized as congregational songs formed an important part of early Methodist worship.

The liturgical furniture is specifically called a “table” so that it cannot be construed as an “altar” where sacrifice could occur. The model of table fellowship is based on Jesus’ parables about the “great feast” and his institution of the Lord’s Supper at the table of his last meal.

Text:

Our Father, who art in Heaven, Hallowed be thy Name; Thy Kingdom come; Thy will be done on earth, as it is in heaven; Give us this day our daily bread; And forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us; And lead us not into Temptation, but deliver us from evil. Amen.

Commentary: The Lord’s prayer functions as an invocation. It is a familiar prayer; since most of the early Methodists were Anglicans, it was prayed thrice daily as a part of their personal spiritual discipline. Its presence at the head of the service calls to mind God’s fatherhood, holiness, and sovereign will. The prayer reminds the petitioner of his or her call to be submissive to the divine will (which is reinforced by the act of kneeling), as well as the deep and constant need to both ask for and to bestow forgiveness. The petition about freedom from temptation and deliverance from evil fits well with Methodism’s emphasis upon “scriptural holiness” or “Christian perfection.”

Text:

The Collect

Almighty God, unto whom all hearts be open, all desires known, and from whom no secrets are hid; cleanse the thoughts of our hearts by the inspiration of thy Holy Spirit, that we may perfectly love thee, and worthily magnify thy holy Name, through Christ our Lord. Amen.

Commentary: Praying the first clause, along with the elder, causes the congregation to reflect upon the experience of living one’s life as being always “open to God.” Because “all hearts are open” and “no secrets are hid” from God, the second clause and petition comes with deep urgency: “cleanse the thoughts of our hearts.” Methodists sought “circumcision of the heart,” a renewing of the inner person by the Holy Spirit, so that one wills God’s will and loves with God’s love. The Collect reinforces this experience through its petition that we “may perfectly love” God and “worthily magnify” God’s holy name.

Text: Then shall the Elder, turning to the People, rehearse distinctly off the TEN COMMANDMENTS: and the People still kneeling shall, after every Commandment, ask God Mercy for their Transgression thereof for the Time past, and Grace to keep the same for the Time to come, as followeth:

Minister:     God spake these words, and said, I am the Lord thy God: Thou shall have none other gods but me.

People:     Lord, have mercy upon us, and incline our hearts to keep this law.

Minister:     Thou shalt not make to thyself any graven image, nor the likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or in the earth beneath, or in the water under the earth. Thou shalt not bow down to them, nor worship them; for I the Lord thy God am a jealous God, and visit the sins of the others upon the children, unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate me, and shew mercy unto thousands in them that love me, and keep my commandments.

People:     Lord, have mercy upon us, and incline our hearts to keep this law.

Minister:     Thou shalt not take the Name of the Lord thy God in vain: for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his Name in vain.

People:     Lord, have mercy upon us, and incline our hearts to keep this law.

Minister:     Remember that thou keep holy the Sabbath-day. Six days shalt thou labour, and do all that thou hast to do; but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God: in it thou shalt do no manner of work, thou, and thy son, and thy daughter, thy man-servant, and thy maid-servant, thy cattle, and the stranger that is within thy gates. For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day; wherefore the Lord blessed the seventh day, and hallowed it.

People:     Lord, have mercy upon us and incline our hearts to keep this law.
Minister:     Honour thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be long in the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee.
People:     Lord, have mercy upon us, and incline our hearts to keep this law.
Minister:     Thou shalt do no murder.
People:     Lord, have mercy upon us, and incline our hearts to keep this law.
Minister:     Thou shalt not commit adultery.
People:     Lord, have mercy upon us, and incline our hearts to keep this law.
Minister:     Thou shalt not steal.
People:     Lord, have mercy upon us, and incline our hearts to keep this law.
Minister:     Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour.
People:     Lord, have mercy upon us, and incline our hearts to keep this law.
Minister:     Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour’s house, thou shalt not covet thy neighbour’s wife, nor his servant, nor his maid, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor any thing that is his.
People:     Lord, have mercy upon us, and incline our hearts to keep this law.

Commentary: This litany of prayer focuses the congregation’s attention upon transgression and forgiveness. It makes specific the “trespasses” regretted in the Lord’s Prayer, and since genuine repentance demands amendment of life, each reflection ends with a petition for God’s mercy as well as for the resolve “to incline our hearts to keep this law.”

Wesley’s willingness to walk the congregation through the deep waters of their specific transgressions was characteristic of his own resolve to give a strict account of his life. This litany also emphatically confronts one with the utter seriousness of one’s sin. The congregation remains on their knees, acting out contrition and humility through bodily posture. In an age when many people were “triflers with sin,” Wesley wanted the Methodists to take serious account of their sins so that they might not only be forgiven but also healed from their bent to sinning.

Christian life, for Wesley, was a life that was victorious over sin; it was therefore necessary and important to know what sin was, and to resolve and seek spiritual assistance to turn from it.

Text: Then shall follow this Collect. Let us pray.

Almighty and everlasting God, we are taught by thy holy word, that the hearts of the Princes of the earth are in thy rule and governance, and that thou dost dispose and turn them as it seemeth best to thy godly wisdom; we humbly beseech thee so to dispose and govern the hearts of the Supreme Rulers of these United States, our Governors, that in all their thoughts, words, and works, they may ever seek thy honour and glory, and study to preserve thy people committed to their charge, in wealth, peace, and godliness. Grant this, O merciful Father, for thy dear Son’s sake, Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.

Commentary: The prayer on behalf of the “Princes of the earth” and “Supreme Rulers of these United States” continues the congregation’s reflection upon the law of God (see Rom. 13, and 1 Pet. 2:13ff.), as well as concrete submission to God’s will as it is worked out in the world, through God’s ordained agents. Yet submission gives way to intercession as the congregation prays that their leaders will seek to glorify God, and thereby to preserve the people “in wealth, peace, and godliness.”

Text: Then shall be said the Collect of the day. And immediately after the Collect, the Elder shall read the Epistle, saying,

The Epistle [or, The Portion of Scripture appointed for the Epistle] is written in the _______ Chapter of ____________ beginning at the ________ Verse.

And the Epistle ended, he shall say.

Here endeth the Epistle.

Then shall he read the Gospel (the People all standing up), saying,

The holy Gospel is written in the ________ Chapter of ________ beginning at the ________ Verse.

Commentary: As the liturgy turns to the “Collect of the day,” we are reminded of Methodism’s debt to the Book of Common Prayer, and to a lectionary of Scripture texts which moved the congregation through the entire Bible, in an orderly fashion, over the course of three years. The “Collect of the day” tailored the Sunday Service to the liturgical year.

Text: Then shall follow the Sermon.

Commentary: John and Charles Wesley often preached extemporaneously, giving a line by line exposition that was heavily seasoned with basic Christian doctrine and ethical injunctions. Their published sermons provide good examples of the content of Wesleyan preaching, but they obviously cannot preserve the original urgency with which they were delivered.

The sermon’s location in the Sunday Service, following the Scripture readings, suggests that the sermon is an application of the Word of God, and a vehicle through which the Word of God speaks afresh, by the power of the Holy Spirit, through the words of the preacher. The sermon is an application and vehicle of the Word, but it is not the culmination of the Sunday Service.

Text: Then shall the Elder say one or more of these Sentences.

The elder may choose from:
Matt. 5:16; 6:19–20; 7:12, 21;
Luke 19:8;
1 Cor. 9:7; 9:11; 9:13–14;
2 Cor. 9:6–7;
Gal. 6:6–7; 6:10;
1 Tim. 6:17–19;
Heb. 6:10; 13:16;
1 John 3:1–3;
Tob. 4:8–9;
Prov. 19:17;
Psalm 41:1

Commentary: The Scripture sentences pronounced after the sermon exhort congregations to actualize the spoken Word through holy, merciful, and charitable living. The selection of texts is broad enough to cover any eventuality arising from the lectionary readings and the sermon. Several of these sentences were probably read solemnly, as the offering was being taken, instead of the organ interlude that is more familiar in modern churches. These sentences applied as exhortations to obedience and faithfulness set the offering in its appropriate context; offering of money was to be understood as a response to the word of God, acting out of the gospel.

The liturgy specifies two applications for the offering: “alms for the poor” and “devotions of the people.” Methodism’s advocacy for the poor was both deeply felt and necessary, because of the economic status of many of the early Methodists. Many people lived in or on the edge of poverty, and practical sustenance was a regular ministry of the Methodist societies. For Wesley to describe the various ministries of the congregation as “devotions” is also rather instructive; it reminds us that these too are acts rendered unto God. They are acted prayers of intercession and sanctification.

Text: While these Sentences are in reading, some fit person appointed for that purpose, shall receive the alms for the poor, and other devotions of the people, in a decent Basin, to be provided for that purpose; and then bring it to the Elder who shall place it upon the Table.

After which done, the Elder shall say:

Let us pray for the whole state of Christ’s Church militant here on earth.

Almighty and everliving God, who, by thy holy Apostle, hast taught us to make prayers and supplications, and to give thanks for all men; We humbly beseech thee most mercifully … to receive these our prayers, which we offer unto thy Divine Majesty; beseeching thee to inspire continually the universal Church with the spirit of truth, unity, and concord: and grant that all they that do confess thy holy Name, may agree in the truth of thy holy word, and live in unity and godly love. We beseech thee also to save and defend all Christian Kings, Princes, and Governors; and especially thy Servants the Supreme Rulers of these United States; that under them we may be godly and quietly governed: and grant unto all that are put in authority under them, that they may truly and indifferently administer justice, to the punishment of wickedness and vice, and to the maintenance of thy true religion and virtue. Give grace, O heavenly Father, to all the Ministers of thy Gospel, that they may both by their life and doctrine set forth thy true and lively word, and rightly and duly administer thy holy Sacraments. And to all thy people give thy heavenly grace; and especially to this Congregation here present; that with meek heart and due reverence they may hear and receive thy holy word, truly serve thee in holiness and righteousness all the days of their life. And we most humbly beseech thee of thy goodness, O Lord, to comfort and succor all them, who in this transitory life are in trouble, sorrow, need, sickness, or any other adversity. And we also bless thy holy Name, for all thy servants departed this life in thy faith and fear; beseeching thee to give us grace so to follow their good examples, that with them we may be partakers of thy heavenly kingdom. Grant this, O Father, for Jesus Christ’s sake, our only Mediator and Advocate. Amen.

Commentary: This prayer for “the whole state of Christ’s Church” returns again to Jesus’ deeds in the upper room where the Lord interceded for his disciples in the immediate context of his Supper (John 17). Wesley’s “catholic spirit” shows through here since the prayer is for the entire Christian Church, not for the Methodists alone. It also reminds us that the Methodist movement began as a society of Christians drawn from a variety of churches. For the Elder to describe this church as “militant here on earth” reminds us that the church is, through the various agents enumerated, actively engaged in a victorious struggle against evil and injustice.

The enumeration of specific persons prayed for is as broad as the introduction to the intercession implies; it turns the congregation’s heart and mind to consider the service of political, civil, and religious leaders. This approach weaves the many spheres of the Christian life into one broadcloth; it reminds us that the various offices each have their own purview and service, yet they each in their way are avenues of service and vehicles through which God’s Word and kingdom are made manifest. Those who suffer and those who succor them are mentioned as special objects of prayerful intercession. The departed saints of the congregation are remembered as examples of “faith and fear”; but our intercession is not for those who already have their reward, but for we who need “grace so to follow their good example.”

Text: Then shall the Elder say to them that come to receive the Holy Communion.

Ye that do truly and earnestly repent of your sins, and are in love and charity with your neighbours, and intend to lead a new life, following the commandments of God, and walking from henceforth in his holy ways; Draw near with faith, and take this holy Sacrament to your comfort; and make your humble confession to Almighty God, meekly kneeling upon your knees.

Commentary: The invitation to the Lord’s Table is addressed to all repentant sinners, who are being reconciled to God and to neighbor, and who “intend to lead a new life.” Wesley esteemed the Eucharist as a “converting and confirming sacrament.” Wesley, and the Methodists after him, believed that communion was a place where the earnest seeker could meet Christ with saving and strengthening import. It must be remembered, however, that in Wesley’s time very few in England would not have been baptized; it is extremely doubtful that John Wesley intended the giving of the Lord’s Supper to unbaptized persons. The Elder’s preparatory words ready the communicants for reconciliation and new life with God through faith in Christ: “Repent,” “intend to lead a new life,” “draw near in faith,” and “make your humble confession to Almighty God.” Thus, through this sacramental act, the liturgy extends to us the comforts of the Gospel and fellowship with the risen Christ.

Text: Then shall this general Confession be made by the Minister in the name of all those that are minded to receive the Holy Communion, both he and all the people kneeling humbly upon their knees, and saying,

Almighty God, Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, Maker of all things, Judge of all men; We acknowledge and bewail our manifold sins and wickedness, Which we from time to time most grievously have committed, By thought, word, and deed, against thy Divine Majesty, provoking most justly thy wrath and indignation against us. We do earnestly repent, and are heartily sorry for these our misdoings; The remembrance of them is grievous unto us. Have mercy upon us, have mercy upon us, most merciful Father; For thy Son our Lord Jesus Christ’s sake, forgive us all that is past; And grant, that we may ever hereafter serve and please thee in newness of life, To the honour and glory of thy Name, Through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.

Commentary: The petitioner feels the awesomeness of almighty God and the depth of his or her unworthiness; our sins are “manifold,” “grievous,” and have been permeated into every sphere of our lives—“in thought, word, and deed.” Our sins have provoked the “wrath and indignation” of Almighty God. We are sinners in the hands of an angry God, completely undone because of the depth of our corruption, and God’s infinite knowledge of our wrong. Our repentance must be “earnest” and it must run as deep as our former falseness. We feel an awesome sense of our guilt and a familiar sorrow because of our willful wanderings from the Father of our love. The petition ends with pleas for mercy and forgiveness for the sake of Christ as well as for amendment (“newness”) of life.

Text: Then shall the Elder say,

O Almighty God, our heavenly Father, who of thy great mercy hast promised forgiveness of sins to all them that with hearty repentance and true faith turn unto thee; Have mercy upon us; pardon and deliver us from all our sins, confirm and strengthen us in all goodness, and bring us to everlasting life, through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.

Commentary: The Elder’s intercession for the congregation emphasizes the same constitutive elements requested in the corporate confession. Having prayed for themselves and each other—and subsequently receiving the intercession of the Elder—the congregation has moved through confession and repentance and now awaits the renewal and reconciliation which the Lord’s Supper both symbolizes and affects.

Text: Then all standing, the Elder shall say,

Hear what comfortable words our Saviour Christ saith unto all that truly turn to him:

Come unto me, all ye that are burdened and heavy-laden, and I will refresh you. Matt. 11:28.

So God loved the world, that he gave his only-begotten Son, to the end that all that believe in him, should not perish, but have everlasting life. John 3:16.

Hear also what St. Paul saith:

This is a true saying, and worthy of all men to be received, That Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners. 1 Tim. 1:15.

Hear also what St. John saith:

If any man sin, we have an Advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ, the righteous: and he is the propitiation for our sins. 1 John 2:1, 2.

Commentary: These scriptural sentences are “comfortable words,” because in announcing them afresh in the context of confession, repentance, and faith, we hear in the Elder’s words God’s voice of acceptance. The sentences assure the congregation that those who have made a sincere confession and repentance shall certainly have forgiveness through faith in the grace of Christ. We feel that a burden of sin is lifted off our shoulders, and we are filled with joy and gratitude.

Text: After which the Elder shall proceed, saying,

Lift up your hearts.

Answ.     We lift them up unto the Lord.

Elder.     Let us give thanks unto our Lord God.

Answ.     It is meet and right so to do.

Then shall the Elder say,

It is very meet, right, and our bounden duty, that we should at all times, and in all places, give thanks unto thee, O Lord, Holy Father, Almighty, Everlasting God.

Commentary: This litany of thanks encourages the congregation to “lift up your hearts”; they are forgiven and reconciled, their hearts are no longer downcast and penitent. Because of the annunciation and reality of God’s will to save, it is “meet and right” to thank God with elevated hearts.

Text: Here shall follow the proper Preface, according to the Time, if there be any especially appointed; or else immediately shall follow;

Therefore with Angels and Archangels and with all the company of heaven, we laud and magnify thy glorious Name, evermore praising thee, and saying, Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of hosts, heaven and earth are full of thy glory. Glory be to thee, O Lord most high. Amen.

Proper Prefaces

Upon Christmas-day

Because thou didst give Jesus Christ thine only Son to be born as at this time for us, who, by the operation of the Holy Ghost, was made very man, and that without spot of sin, to make us clean from all sin. Therefore with Angels, etc.

Upon Easter-day

But chiefly we are bound to praise thee for the glorious Resurrection of thy Son Jesus Christ our Lord: for he is the very Paschal Lamb, which was offered for us, and hath taken away the sin of the world; who by his death hath destroyed death, and by his rising to life again, hath restored to us everlasting life. Therefore with Angels, etc.

Upon Ascension-day

Through thy most dearly beloved Son, Jesus Christ our Lord; who, after his most glorious Resurrection, manifestly appeared to all his Apostles, and in their sight ascended up into heaven, to prepare a place for us, that where he is, thither we might also ascend, and reign with him in glory. Therefore with Angels, etc.

Upon Whitsunday

Through Jesus Christ our Lord; according to whose most true promise the Holy Ghost came down, as at this time, from heaven with a sudden great sound, as it had been a mighty wind, in the likeness of fiery tongues, lighting upon the Apostles, to teach them, and to lead them to all truth; giving them both the gift of divers languages, and also boldness, with fervent zeal, constantly to preach the Gospel unto all nations, whereby we have been brought out of darkness and error, into the clear light and true knowledge of thee, and of thy Son Jesus Christ. Therefore with Angels, etc.

Upon the Feast of Trinity

Who are one God, one Lord: not only one person, but three persons in one substance. For that which we believe of the glory of the Father, the same we believe of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, without any difference or inequality. Therefore with Angels, etc.

After each of which Prefaces shall immediately be said,

Therefore with Angels and Archangels, and with all the company of heaven we laud and magnify thy glorious Name, evermore praising thee, and saying, Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of hosts, heaven and earth are full of thy glory. Glory be to thee, O Lord most high. Amen.

Commentary: The three-fold cry of “holy” blends our thanksgiving for reconciliation with praise for the perfections and majesty of God. The “Proper Prefaces” again fit the Sunday Service into the liturgical calendar. Just as the introductory praise reminded us that “heaven and earth are full of the glory of God,” so now we are reminded, through attention to the major Christian festivals, that the Incarnation, Resurrection, Ascension, the bestowal of the Holy Spirit, and the tri-unity of God are manifestations and demonstrations of that same glory.

Text: Then shall the Elder, kneeling down at the Table, say, in the Name of all of them that shall receive the Communion, this Prayer following; the People also kneeling:

We do not presume to come to this thy Table, O merciful Lord, trusting in our own righteousness, but in thy manifold and great mercies. We are not worthy so much as to gather up the crumbs under thy table. But thou are the same Lord, whose property is always to have mercy: Grant us therefore, gracious Lord, so to eat the flesh of thy dear Son Jesus Christ, and to drink his blood, that our sinful bodies may be made clean by his body, and our souls washed through his most precious blood, and that we may evermore dwell in him, and he in us. Amen.

Commentary: The Elder approaches the Communion table as a representative of the congregation. His prayer of approach reminds all that they must come to the Lord’s Table deeply aware of their unworthiness and equally aware of God’s great mercy. Wesley’s Anglican heritage contributes to the sacramental realism; partaking in faith, the bread and wine are to us the flesh and blood of Jesus Christ. The effects of faith-filled partaking are not only forgiveness and renewal (since we are “made clean” and “our souls washed”), but also union with the risen Christ—“that we may … dwell in him, and he in us.”

Text: Then the Elder shall say the Prayer of Consecration, as followeth:

Almighty God, our heavenly Father, who, of thy tender mercy, didst give thine only Son Jesus Christ to suffer death upon the cross for our redemption; who made there (by his oblation of himself once offered) a full, perfect, and sufficient sacrifice, oblation, and satisfaction for the sins of the whole world; and did institute, and in his holy Gospel command us to continue a perpetual memory of that his precious death until his coming again; hear us, O merciful Father, we most humbly beseech thee, and grant that we, receiving these thy creatures of bread and wine, according to thy Son our Saviour Jesus Christ’s holy institution, in remembrance of his death and passion, may be partakers of his most blessed Body and Blood: who, in the same night that he was betrayed, took bread; and when he had given thanks, he brake it, and gave it to his disciples, saying, Take, eat; this is my Body which is given for you: Do this in remembrance of me. Likewise, after supper, he took the cup; and when he had given thanks, he gave it to them, saying, Drink ye all of this; for this is my blood of the New Testament, which is shed for you, and for many, for the remission of sins: Do this, as oft as ye shall drink it, in remembrance of me. Amen.

Commentary: The Prayer of Consecration focuses our attention upon the historical and theological reality of Christ’s death on our behalf. The belief in the saving efficacy of Jesus’ death is reinforced through a series of traditional phrases: his death is “once offered” and need not be repeated. It is “a full, perfect, and sufficient sacrifice” so that we need to bring nothing more than faith in Christ before God for the covering of our sins. It is an “oblation,” or offering, which Jesus willingly made for us. Jesus’ death was a “satisfaction,” which means that God’s just penalty against sinners has been paid by a sinless substitute. And finally, Jesus’ death is not for himself alone or for a few. Rather it has such power and significance that it covers the “sins of the whole world.”

The prayer does not specifically consecrate or set apart the Communion elements (bread and wine) through a special transformation; the congregation is the focus of this prayer of consecration. Reflecting upon the deep significance of Jesus’ death, and the reality of our forgiveness, we dedicate ourselves to God through participation in the Lord’s Supper. Thus this new relationship (“covenant”) brings Christ’s life into our lives. The bread and wine are set apart through our faith; they remain unchanged, but by faith, they are received as emblems of Jesus’ body and blood.

The second section of the Prayer of Consecration turns our attention to Jesus’ establishment of the Lord’s Supper. The “gospel command” is found in the Lord’s words: “Do this … in remembrance of me.… For whenever you eat this bread and drink this cup, you proclaim the Lord’s death until he comes” (1 Cor. 11:25–26). The Elder’s liturgical reenactment of Jesus breaking the bread and the blessing of the cup makes our remembrance vivid and tangible. The minister speaks Jesus’ words to the congregation: “Take, eat … Drink ye all of this … ” and thereby proclaims the gospel to us. These sacramental signs of bread and wine testify to the remission of our sins through Jesus’ broken body and shed blood.

Text: Then shall the Minister first receive the Communion in both kinds himself, and then proceed to deliver the same to the other Ministers in like manner, (if any be present) and after that to the People also, in order, into their Hands. And when he delivereth the Bread to anyone, he shall say,

The Body of our Lord Jesus Christ, which was given for thee, preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life. Take and eat this in remembrance that Christ died for thee, and feed on him in thy heart by faith with thanksgiving.

And the Minister that delivereth the Cup to any one shall say,

The Blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, which was shed for thee, preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life. Drink this in remembrance that Christ’s Blood was shed for thee, and be thankful.

Commentary: The minister receives and offers communion in “both kinds,” in that both bread and wine are offered and received. With the Protestant reformers, (and in contrast to Roman Catholic rites of the same era) Wesley affirmed the equality and unity of all Christians before God by stipulating communion be offered and received by all.

The words for offering the bread make Christ’s sacrifice very tangible for us; “the Body of our Lord Jesus Christ … ,” and we take bread into our hands. Once again, the Methodist rite is more concerned with the transformation of the Christian through the Lord’s Supper, than with a transformation of the elements.

The second sentence shows how the sacrament bridges time and space with the saving effectiveness of Christ’s death: we “take and eat … in remembrance” of Christ’s death in the historical past. This taking and remembering enable us to “feed on him … by faith with thanksgiving.” In a similar way, the taking of the cup calls to mind the shedding of Christ’s blood and evokes thankfulness on our part.

Text: If the consecrated Bread or Wine be all spent before all have communicated, the Elder may consecrate more, by repeating the Prayer of Consecration. When all have communicated, the Minister shall return to the Lord’s Table, and place upon it what remaineth of the consecrated Elements, covering the same with a fair Linen Cloth. Then shall the Elder say the Lord’s prayer, the People repeating after him every Petition.

Commentary: That the prayer is also understood to consecrate the Communion elements is clear from the treatment accorded them here. The bread and the wine are set apart for sacramental use. But they are not said to be “holy,” nor are they elevated, bowed to, or shown special veneration.

Text:

Our Father who art in Heaven, Hallowed be thy Name; Thy kingdom come; Thy will be done on Earth, As it is in Heaven: Give us this day our daily bread; And forgive us our trespasses, As we forgive them that trespass against us; And lead us not into temptation; But deliver us from evil: For thine is the Kingdom, and the Power, and the Glory, For ever and ever. Amen.

Commentary: The congregation’s recitation of the Lord’s Prayer reminds us that the Lord’s Supper is “communion,” communion with Christ, and with Christians. The act of praying together establishes both aspects of our communion. The prayer, as an act of devotion and commitment, is also an appropriate response to God’s bestowal of himself to us through the offering of his Son.

Text: After which shall be said as followeth:

O Lord and heavenly Father, we thy humble servants desire thy Fatherly goodness mercifully to accept this our sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving; most humbly beseeching thee to grant that, by the merits and death of thy Son Jesus Christ, and through faith in his blood, we and all thy whole Church may obtain remission of our sins, and all other benefits of his passion. And here we offer and present unto thee, O Lord, ourselves, our souls and bodies, to be a reasonable, holy, and lively sacrifice unto thee; humbly beseeching thee that all we who are partakers of this holy Communion, may be filled with thy grace and heavenly benediction. And although we be unworthy, through our manifold sins, to offer unto thee any sacrifice, yet we beseech thee to accept this our bounden duty and service; not weighing our merits, but pardoning our offences, through Jesus Christ our Lord; by whom, and with whom, in the unity of the Holy Ghost, all honour and glory be unto thee, O Father Almighty, world without end. Amen.

Commentary: The communicants respond to the gift of Christ’s sacrifice by offering up “this our sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving.” The magnitude of God’s gift, made tangible for us through the bread and wine, elicits heartfelt thanks and adoration. The petition to “obtain the remission of our sins” is based on the merits of Christ’s death, and not on our participation in the Lord’s Supper. The reference to “all other benefits of his passion” reminds us that Jesus’ suffering and death on our behalf unlock the riches of a relationship we can have with God, which defies enumeration. The sacrifice of our praise is fittingly followed by the sacrifice of ourselves; just as Christ gave himself to us, and for us, so now we give ourselves (“souls and bodies”) and whole lives (“bounden duty and service”) to Christ.

The phraseology of “not weighing our merits, but pardoning our offenses,” creates a sense of humility and penitence because of our failings. It also creates an important juxtaposition between the “merits of Christ” and “our merits”; the former are reconciling and life-giving, the latter is utterly worthless.

Text: Then shall be said,

Glory be to God on high, and on earth peace, good-will towards men, We praise thee, we bless thee, we worship thee, we glorify thee, we give thanks to thee for thy great glory, O Lord God, heavenly king, God the Father Almighty.

O Lord, the only-begotten Son Jesus Christ; O Lord God, Lamb of God, Son of the Father, that takest away the sins of the world, have mercy upon us. Thou that takest away the sins of the world, have mercy upon us. Thou that takest away the sins of the world, receive our prayer. Thou that sittest at the right hand of God the Father, have mercy upon us.

For thou only art holy, thou only art the Lord, thou only, O Christ, with the Holy Ghost, art most high in the glory of God the Father. Amen.

Commentary: This glorious annunciation puts the angels’ words announcing Christ’s birth (Luke 2:13–14) into our own mouths. It is a fitting reminder that through the Lord’s Supper and through our communion with Christ in the newness of life, Christ has come again among his people. The next clause of praise is formed on words and imagery borrowed from the prologue of John’s gospel (John 1:1–17). It reminds us that our sins, and those of the whole world, are genuinely borne away by Jesus. But Jesus is no longer upon the cross of his sacrifice, he has ascended on high (“at the right hand of God the Father”) to his place of glory, dominion, and intercession for us. The triune ascription of holiness (“only thou art holy”) reminds us that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are one God and that each has their role to play in our salvation and in our relationship with God.

Text: Then the Elder, if he see it expedient, may put up an Extempore Prayer; and afterwards shall let the People depart with this Blessing:

May the peace of God, which passeth all understanding, keep your hearts and minds in the knowledge and love of God, and of his Son Jesus Christ our Lord; and the blessing of God Almighty, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, be amongst you, and remain with you always. Amen.

Commentary: Extempore prayer was an important part of the Wesleyan tradition. One can well imagine that there were extensive, personal prayers made at this juncture. The benediction (drawn from Phil. 4:7) invokes a deep and enduring sense of God’s peace upon the “hearts and minds” of the communicants, to the end that they are kept in the knowledge and love of God. Peace with God and an enduring sense of God’s presence were certainly gifts given in the Lord’s Supper, and they are the best gifts with which one can leave the worship service. Once again, the final blessing is tripartite, and it emphasizes the enduring effects of these sacred moments (“be among us and remain with you always”).

(Text: John Wesley, “The Order for the Administration of the Lord’s Supper” from The Sunday Service of the Methodists in North America [1784], published in Bard Thompson, Liturgies of the Western Church [Cleveland: The World Publishing Company, 1961].)

Methodist Worship in the Post-Reformation Period

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John Wesley was an Anglican clergyman who sought to bring new life to the Church of England through conversion and enthusiastic response to God in sacramental worship. In America, Wesleyan forms of worship did not survive. There Methodists tended to follow the frontier-revivalist pattern of worship.

Methodism can be seen as a counter-cultural movement in the midst of the Enlightenment. When the sacraments were on the margin of church life, early Methodism put them at the center; when religious zeal was in disrepute, Methodism made enthusiasm essential; where religion was confined to the churches, Methodism took it to the fields and streets. John Wesley (1703–1791), the founder of Methodism, was a faithful son of the Church of England and never ceased in his love for its worship. The Methodists under Wesley functioned virtually as a religious order under a General Rule within the established church.

Distinctive features of early Methodist worship were “constant communion,” i.e., frequent Eucharist, fervent preaching for salvation, vigorous hymn singing (then a novelty), care of souls in small groups, and a mixture of extemporaneous and fixed prayers. Charles Wesley (1707–1788) wrote hymns by the thousands; he and John created a great treasury of 166 eucharistic hymns. John Wesley practiced pragmatic traditionalism, preferring ancient forms for modern needs when possible: vigils became the Methodist watch night, the agapē surfaced as the love feast, and the covenant service was adapted from Presbyterianism. In 1784, John Wesley published his service book for America, the Sunday Service, advocating, among other things, a weekly Eucharist.

Much of this did not survive the transit of the Atlantic, and American Methodism soon discarded Wesley’s service book but not his hymn book. Much of the sacramental life was dissipated (although the texts for the rites remained largely intact). Instead, Methodism tended to adapt many of the techniques of the frontier. Camp meetings abounded for a time and eventually resulted in a distinctive revival-type service. Fanny Crosby (1820–1915) wrote many hymns of personal devotion to the blessed Savior, while Charles A. Tindley (1856–1933) was a prolific black hymn writer.

Despite the prevalence of revival-style worship, there persisted in America a number of areas where more formal worship was preferred, such as in Birmingham and Nashville. Thomas O. Summers (1812–1882) was the leader of a nineteenth-century liturgical movement in the South which affected the reprinting of Wesley’s service book and produced a standard order of worship. Wesley’s prayer book long remained in use in England, or even The Book of Common Prayer. In general, Methodists in the nineteenth century reacted against the new ritualism of the established church in England, only to adopt some aspects of it several generations later.

Revivalism gave way to a period of aestheticism with much discussion of “enriching worship.” This, in turn, gave way to a neo-orthodox period of recovering historic liturgies, especially Wesley’s. Recent decades have seen more attention to assimilating the post-Vatican II Roman Catholic reforms, especially the lectionary. The new (1989) United Methodist Hymnal shows how far this has gone and may mark the beginning of a neo-Protestant emphasis on keeping the identity of one’s own tradition.