Biblical Songs for Corporate Singing

Biblical songs for corporate singing are to be found throughout both the Old and New Testaments. The earliest recorded song is the Song of Moses (Exod. 15:1–18), and the last song is found in the book of Revelation (Rev. 19:1–8). This article lists the most important biblical songs, which are sometimes called canticles, and notes how these biblical songs are sung in the contemporary church.

The Old Testament repertoire includes the Song of Hannah (1 Sam. 1:1–10), the Song of Jonah (Jonah 2:2–9), the First Song of Isaiah (12:2–6), the Second Song of Isaiah (26:9–21), and the Song of Habakkuk (Hab. 3:2–19), as well as the Psalter and other poetic passages.

The Psalter itself is made up of texts that are sung corporately by all of God’s people. These one hundred and fifty selections probably represent many other unrecorded psalms which were sung responsively by a leader and the congregation or antiphonally by two groups of singers. Thus, from Old Testament times singing was a part of the public praise of God.

Several New Testament songs were sung in Christian worship. This repertoire includes the Song of Mary (the Magnificat, Luke 1:46–55), the Song of Zacharias (the Benedictus, Luke 1:68–79), the Gloria in Excelsis or Greater Doxology (Luke 2:14), and the Song of Simeon (the Nunc Dimittis, Luke 2:29–32).

Other New Testament songs or fragments of songs are found in Ephesians 5:14; Philippians 2:6–11; Colossians 1:15–20; 1 Timothy 1:17, 3:16, and 6:15–16; and 2 Timothy 1:11–13. These passages are chiefly doctrinal and didactic. However, in the case of Ephesians 5:14, the baptismal phrase, “Awake, thou that sleepest,” is liturgical. Moreover, the devotional songs of the book of Revelation discussed in Robert E. Coleman’s inspirational text Songs of Heaven (Old Tappan, N.J.: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1980) usually include a doxological stanza of praise. Three of the best known songs of this type are the Song of the Creator (Rev. 4:11), the Song of Judgment (Rev. 11:17–18) and the Song of Moses and the Lamb (Rev. 15:3–4).

Contemporary Use of Biblical Song

All of these biblical songs are still in current use as translations or paraphrases of the original text. Their use is a part of the current renewal of interest in biblical songs in many Christian churches, liturgical and nonliturgical, traditional and contemporary, charismatic and noncharismatic.

An early impetus to this increasing use of biblical song for congregational singing came from a number of English hymn writers in the 1970s. These concerned writers participated in an effort to provide relevant material, hoping to make psalm-singing more accessible to participants in Anglican worship and informal gatherings alike. Psalm Praise (Chicago: GIA Publications, 1973) contains contemporary texts based upon scriptural passages and new music by the editor Michael Baughen and committee members Timothy Dudley-Smith, Christopher Idle, Michael Perry, Michael Saward, James Seddon, Norman Warren, and others.

Their efforts were also evident in Psalms for Today (Michael Perry and David Iliff, eds. [London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1990], available from Hope Publishing Company, Carol Stream, Ill.) designed to provide contemporary communal worship songs based upon what they called the basic hymnbook of the Christian church—the Psalms. This superb collection includes psalm texts for chanting, metrical versions for singing, special arrangements for choral speaking, along with popular known hymn tunes and new tunes.

Although psalm-singing has been a form of congregational song in churches for centuries, it has had a significant revival throughout America during the latter part of the twentieth century. Always a part of Orthodox and Reformed worship, the practice of psalm-singing continues in the worship services of the various Presbyterian and Reformed churches in America. This is quite evident in the 1987 Psalter Hymnal (Emily R. Brink, ed. [Grand Rapids, Mich.: CRC Publications, 1987]) of the Christian Reformed Church, with its clearly defined section of one hundred and fifty psalm selections, and in the 1990 edition of the Presbyterian Hymnal: Psalms and Spiritual Songs (Linda Jo McKim, ed. [Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1990]), with its section of one hundred psalm paraphrases and hymns based upon selected psalm texts.

Scripture Songs

These same two volumes of the Reformed tradition also contain a number of non-psalmodic biblical songs. For example, the Psalter Hymnal offers a versification of the Song of Hannah, settings of the Song of Mary and the Song of Simeon, and a text-based upon the Song of Zacharias. Likewise, the “Service Music” section of the Presbyterian Hymnal includes musical settings of the songs of Mary, Zacharias, and Simeon. Finally, the nondenominational hymnal, The Worshiping Church (Donald P. Hustad, ed. [Carol Stream, Ill.: Hope Publishing Company, 1990]), has a designated section of “Psalms and Canticles.” Here the reader will discover the First Song of Isaiah in a version by an American, Carl P. Daw, Jr., and the Second Song of Isaiah paraphrased by an Englishman, Michael Perry. Of particular interest in this section is the inclusion of eight separate Scripture readings divided by the repeated singing of a musical phrase. For example, the text of Psalm 98 is divided into three sections, with each spoken section concluding with the singing of a musical setting of the first verse by Hal Hopson, a noted American church music composer.

Besides this, contemporary versions of numerous scriptural songs and others based upon Scripture are to be found in recent publications, of which the following are representative. A British publication, Come Rejoice (Michael Perry, ed. [Carol Stream, Ill.: Hope Publishing Company, 1989]) contains Brian Black’s setting of the Song of Christ’s Glory (Phil. 2) along with Christopher Idle’s version of the Song of Mary. In Go Forth for God, a collection of hymns by J. R. Peacey (Carol Stream, Ill.: Hope Publishing Company, 1991), “Awake, awake: fling off the night!” is offered as a paraphrase of Ephesians 5:14 according to the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible. In this same genre of music, eighteen metrical canticles can be found in A Year of Grace (Carl P. Daw, Jr., ed. [Carol Stream, Ill.: Hope Publishing Company, 1990]). These canticles have been published separately under the title To Sing God’s Praise (Carl P. Daw, Jr. [Carol Stream, Ill.: Hope Publishing Company, 1992]).

Music in the Worship of the New Testament

From the beginning of the New Testament experience, the believer’s response to Jesus Christ has included song. Most of the New Testament songs or hymns have found their way into the enduring liturgy of the church, including the Magnificat, the Benedictus, the Gloria, and the Nunc Dimittis. New Testament music in worship included psalmody, hymns composed in the church, and spiritual songs—alleluias and songs of jubilation or ecstatic nature. Further, many of the elements characteristic of later liturgical practice are rooted in New Testament actions and elements of worship.

Early Christian Worship It is not just a coincidence that the birth of Christ was announced by an outburst of song which is recorded in the first two chapters of Luke. Since that time, the Christian faith has been expressed with joyful music that has not been matched by any religion in history. The four canticles found in Luke are psalmodic in style and are traditionally known by the first words of their Latin translation.

  • Magnificat. And Mary said, “My soul magnifies the Lord, and my spirit rejoices in God my Savior” (Luke 1:46–55)
  • Benedictus. Zechariah was filled with the Holy Spirit, and prophesied, saying, “Blessed be the Lord God of Israel” (Luke 1:67–79)
  • Gloria in Excelsis Deo. And suddenly there was with the angel a multitude of the heavenly host praising God and saying, “Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace among men with whom he is pleased!” (Luke 2:13, 14)
  • Nunc Dimittis. He (Simeon) took him up in his arms and blessed God and said, “Lord, now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace, according to thy word; for mine eyes have seen thy salvation” (Luke 2:28–32).

The Song of Mary, the Song of Zechariah (father of John the Baptist), the Song of the Angels, and the Song of Simeon have been used more in historic Christian worship than any other biblical passages, outside of the Psalms.

After the resurrection and ascension of Christ, the disciples (later including the apostle Paul) continued to meet in the synagogues on the Sabbath as was their custom, giving witness to their faith in the risen Christ as the Jewish Messiah. At the same time, they met on the first day of the week to “remember their Lord” in the celebration of the Eucharist, followed by an agape meal, or love feast. Eventually, it became apparent that their presence would no longer be tolerated in the synagogues, and they began to meet for their own “Christian synagogue” service. In the final evolution of full Christian worship, the synagogue and the Upper Room experiences were united in one two-part service.

Regarding music, it seems clear that first-century Christians used three different types of songs: “psalms and hymns and spiritual songs.” It is a little short of amazing that Paul delineates three different genres of music for worship, mentioning them in two different letters to young churches. We must believe that they were contrasting—in origin, in subject matter, and possibly even in performance practice. This is substantiated by Egon Wellesz, one of the leading authorities on the music of this period.

St. Paul must certainly have been referring to a practice well known to the people to whom he wrote. We may therefore assume that three different types of chant were, in fact, used among them, and we can form an idea of their characteristics from the evidence of Jewish music and later recorded Christian chant:

  • Psalmody: the cantillation of the Jewish psalms and of the canticles and doxologies modeled on them.
  • Hymns: songs of praise of a syllabic type, i.e., each syllable is sung to one or two notes of the melody.
  • Spiritual songs: Alleluia and other chants of a jubilant or ecstatic character, richly ornamented (Egon Wellesz, “Early Christian Music,” in The New Oxford History of Music, vol. 2, p. 2).

Whether or not Wellesz is correct about the musical character of these forms, the nature and source of the texts seem well established. “Psalms” no doubt included all the psalms and canticles that were common to Jewish worship, in the tabernacle, the temple, and the synagogue. “Hymns” were probably new expressions in song, presenting the doctrine and theology of the church. There are a number of these hymns in the letters of Paul, written in the patterns of classical Greek poetry, and it is reasonable to assume that they were quickly adopted as “Christ songs” by the churches which read the epistles.

The koine Greek phrase for “spiritual songs” is odaes pneumaticaes—“pneumatic odes,” or possibly “odes upon the breath” since the same word was used for “breath” and “spirit.” Some have conjectured that these were melismatic songs based on acclamations such as “alleluia”, “glory”, or “holy.”

Wellesz connects it with the common practice of most Near Eastern cultures at the beginning of the Christian era. Furthermore, he suggests that it was perpetuated in later Christian worship in the jubilus of the mass, the (originally improvised) melismatic prolongation of the final syllable of the “Alleluia.” As St. Augustine said of this type of Jewish-Christian song: It is a certain sound of joy without words … it is the expression of a mind poured forth in joy. A man rejoicing in his own exultation, after certain words which cannot be understood, bursteth forth into sounds of exultation without words so that it seemeth that he … filled with excessive joy cannot express in words the subject of that joy. (Nicene & Post-Nicene Fathers, ser. 1, vol. 8, 488)

We presume that early Christian worship was strictly vocal, since instrumental music was primarily associated with Hebrew temple sacrifices, was probably not used in synagogues, and was abandoned even by the Jews when the temple was destroyed in a.d. 70.

The Functions of Music in the Early Church

The New Testament emphasizes both the human and the divine sources of song. Music flows from human experience, and it no doubt also affects that experience. James seems to suggest that it is most logically associated with the emotion of Christian joy. “Is anyone among you suffering? Let him pray. Is any cheerful? Let him sing praise” (James 5:13). In Paul’s first letter to Christians at Corinth, one verse (when read alone) seems to be saying that all musical worship should be equally emotional and cerebral. “I will sing with the spirit and I will sing with the mind also” (1 Cor. 14:15). However, the scriptural context reveals that he is talking about two different experiences. Relating the verse to Ephesians 5:19 and Colossians 3:16, it may be Paul is suggesting that he would sing “hymns” with the mind and “spiritual songs” with the spirit. In any experience of worship, our minds are engaged, no doubt, at different levels at different times; on occasion, perhaps most persons hear music more emotionally than rationally.

All of these functions of music in the early Christian community may be seen to support the expression of the Christian faith. One passage in the Authorized Version, “teaching and admonishing one another in psalms” (Col. 3:16), seems to be a clear biblical injunction to use song to learn doctrine and to teach Christian ethics.

The early church sang of the divinity and the work of Christ to express their new faith; at the same time, they were teaching those doctrines to the catechumens, those who were still being trained in the faith but had not yet been baptized.

Finally, and perhaps primarily, we should see Christian song as an offering to God in worship. Paul mentions this specifically in Hebrews 13:15: “Through him [Jesus] then let us continually offer up a sacrifice of praise to God, that is, the fruit of lips that acknowledge his name.” This is also emphasized in the two verses in which Paul says so much about musical worship: “singing and making melody to the Lord with all your heart” (Eph. 5:19), and “sing … with thankfulness in your hearts to God” (Col. 3:16).

Worship Elements Mentioned in the New Testament

The following is a brief outline of early Christian worship taken from various excerpts of Scripture:

Liturgy of the Word

  • Singing (of various types)—“psalms and hymns and spiritual songs” (Col. 3:16), probably without instrumental accompaniment
  • Prayers—“And they devoted themselves to … prayers” (Acts 2:42).
  • Congregational amen—“how can any one in the position of an outsider say “amen” to your thanksgiving when he does not know what you are saying?” (1 Cor. 14:16).
  • Scripture readings (especially the prophets, and including letters from Paul)—“Till I come, attend to the public reading of Scripture” (1 Tim . 4:13).
  • Homily (exposition)—“On the first day of the week, when we were gathered together to break bread, Paul talked with them … and he prolonged his speech until midnight” (Acts 20:7).
  • Physical action—“I desire then that in every place the men should pray, lifting holy hands” (1 Tim. 2:8).
  • Intercession (following the example of Christ in the Upper Room)—“When Jesus had spoken these words, he lifted up his eyes to heaven and said … I am not praying for the world but for those whom thou hast given me” (John 17:1, 9).
  • Collection (alms)—“Now concerning the contribution for the saints … On the first day of every week, each of you is to put something aside and store it up, as he may prosper, so that contributions need not be made when I come” (1 Cor. 16:1, 2).

Liturgy of the Body and the Blood

  • The kiss of peace (evidently a Jewish practice, continued by early Christians)—“So if you are offering your gift at the altar, and there remember that your brother has something against you, leave your gift there before the altar and go; first be reconciled to your brother” (Matt. 5:23, 24). The phrase “kiss of love” or “holy kiss” is found in Rom. 16:16, 1 Cor. 16:20, 1 Thess. 5:26, and 1 Pet. 5:14.
  • A confession of faith—“take hold of the eternal life to which you were called when you made the good confession in the presence of many witnesses” (1 Tim. 6:12).
  • Thanksgiving (Eucharist)—“And he took bread, and when he had given thanks” (Luke 22:19).
  • Remembrance (anamnesis, Gr.)—“Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me” (1 Cor. 11:25).
  • The anticipation of Christ’s return—“For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord’s death until he comes” (1 Cor. 11:26).

Summary

One of the Bible’s most significant contributions to church music is the broad spectrum of texts it has left for Christian worship. The psalms and canticles of the Old Testament and of Luke 1 and 2 have been the basis for liturgical expression for almost two thousand years. In addition, the New Testament hymns and many other passages in both Testaments have been used verbatim in anthems, motets, and cantatas, and have provided the inspiration for many of our extrabiblical hymns and Christian songs. The Scriptures will always be our best source for worship material; that which is not directly quoted or paraphrased is rightly expected to conform to Bible truth.

By inference, the scriptures also suggest proper functions for today’s church music. Both Old and New Testaments reveal a transcendent God who is the object of our adoration. From the New Testament, we understand more of the believer’s personal relationship with God through Christ, and also of his fellowship with other saints.

Music in the Worship of the Old Testament

Music was an important element of both temple and synagogue worship. Undoubtedly this music and its forms influenced the form and use of music in the early Christian church. Both Jews and Christians revere a transcendent God and both give honor to Scripture. For these reasons and others, Jewish synagogue worship and modern Christian services are similar in content and spirit.

Through almost three thousand years of Hebrew/Christian history, music has been inseparable from worship, and the Bible contains much of our early heritage of worship song. The Psalms come from many periods of the ancient Jewish culture, and they were augmented by canticles that date back to Israel’s deliverance from Egypt.

Synagogue worship probably developed among the Jews as a result of their dispersion in the fifth century before Christ. With its emphasis on the reading and explanation of Scripture, prayers, and the singing of psalms and canticles, it was very significant in the framing of early Christian worship. Music in the synagogue was led by cantors—soloists who may have been trained in the temple Levitical ministry—and included some congregational participation.

The New Testament era began with the canticles surrounding Christ’s birth, recorded in the Gospel of St. Luke. The new faith and its expression were supported with several types of music—“psalms and hymns and spiritual songs” according to the apostle Paul. The epistles do contain some general principles: the Scriptures were to be read and the gospel was to be preached, certain types of prayer were encouraged, and believers were expected to celebrate the Eucharist or Communion.

The Early Traditions

The first biblical reference to musical experience is a narrative of musical thanksgiving, led by Moses and his sister Miriam after the Israelites had been delivered from the Egyptians: Then Moses and the Israelites sang this song to the Lord: “I will sing to the Lord, for he is highly exalted. The horse and its rider he has hurled into the sea.… ” Then Miriam the prophetess, Aaron’s sister, took a tambourine in her hand, and all the women followed her, with tambourines and dancing. Miriam sang to them: “Sing to the Lord, for he is highly exalted. The horse and its rider he has hurled into the sea” (Exod. 15:1, 20–21).

This performance was both instrumental and vocal, involved both men and women, and was accompanied by expressive movement. The song was a prototype of the expressions of praise to God that are found throughout the Old Testament, particularly in the Psalms.

Erik Routley has reminded us that there are two musical worship traditions in the Old Testament: one was spontaneous and ecstatic, the other formal and professional (Church Music and the Christian Faith, p. 6). The first of these is mentioned as part of Saul’s preparation to become king of Israel; the prophet Samuel was giving the instructions:

After that you will go to Gibeah of God … as you approach the town, you will meet a procession of prophets coming down from the high place with lyres, tambourines, flutes, and harps being played before them, and they will be prophesying. The Spirit of the Lord will come upon you in power, and you will prophesy with them, and you will be changed into a different person. (1 Sam. 10:5–6)

In this early period, music was apparently expected to assist the worshiper’s experience of God. The same idea is expressed in connection with an occasion when the Prophet Elisha foretold God’s judgment: “But now bring me a harpist.” While the harpist was playing the hand of the Lord came upon Elijah and said, “This is what the Lord says” (2 Kings 3:15–16). The expectation that music can affect human behavior (ethos) was common in Scripture times and has persisted through history. The Bible also records an early use of music in therapy: whenever the spirit from God came upon Saul, David would take his harp and play. Then relief would come to Saul; he would feel better, and the evil spirit would leave him (see 1 Samuel 16:23).

Music in the Temple

The second Old Testament musical tradition—the music for the temple—was formal and professional, and was initiated by Israel’s shepherd-king who was himself a musician and hymn composer: David told the leaders of the Levites to appoint their brothers as singers to sing joyful songs, accompanied by musical instruments: lyres, harps, and cymbals (1 Chron. 15:16).

As priest-musicians, these performers gave full time to their musical service. They were chosen on the basis of their talent (1 Chron. 15:22) and were thoroughly trained, serving five years of apprenticeship before being admitted to the regular chorus. The Jewish choir was organized under at least three composer-conductors—Asaph, Herman, and Jeduthun (2 Chron. 5:12). The singing was accompanied by many kinds of instruments—lyres, pipes, harps, trumpets, and cymbals—and was also associated with dance (Ps. 150:4).

The Musical Sound

In ancient Hebrew worship, the words of Scripture were never spoken without melody; to do so was considered to be inappropriate. They were always sung in a fervent cantillation. (“Shout to God with loud songs of joy!” Ps. 47:1). They were accompanied by instruments in what is believed to have been a sort of heterophony, in which the instruments provided embellishments of the vocal melody. As in most early cultures, Hebrew instruments were of three basic types:

  • String—kinnor (“lyre,” related to the Greeks’ kithara) and nebhel (“harp” with up to ten strings, sometimes called “psaltery” in kjv).
  • Wind—shophar (a ram’s horn), halil (a double-reed, like the oboe), hazozerah (a metal trumpet), and ugabh (a vertical flute, used mainly in secular music).
  • Percussion—toph (tambourine, or hand drum), zelzelim (cymbals), and mena an im (a sistrum). (See The New Oxford History of Music, vol. 1, 295–296, and footnoted references.)

In Old Testament worship antiphonal singing was probably the norm, as evidenced by the fact that many of the Psalms are couched in a responsorial pattern. In modern liturgical church practice, each verse is divided into a versicle and response.

V: God be merciful unto us, and bless us;
R: And cause his face to shine upon us. (Psalm 67:1, KJV)
V: O give thanks unto the Lord; for he is good:
R: For his mercy endureth for ever. (Psalms 136:1, KJV)

It is natural for us to try to guess what this ancient music sounded like. Some Jewish worship musicians insist that they still retain much of the original character of their chants, even though they may have been originally preserved only by oral tradition. Recent musicologists have reasoned that the early Christian chant styles were patterned after Jewish antecedents. It is probable that certain traditions in the Byzantine chant of the Greek, Antiochian, and Palestinian churches carry some remnants of the original sounds. Eric Werner says that all the foremost authorities (Curt Sachs, A. Z. Idelsohn, and R. Lachman) agree that the chants were based on four-note (tetra-chordal) melodic motives, and that “the archetype of chant was similar to ancient Gregorian tunes, which means that they were based upon small melodic patterns of a rather narrow range, usually not exceeding a fourth or a fifth” (Eric Werner, Jewish Music, 623).

Within the last few years, French musician and scholar Suzanne Haik Vantoura released the results of her four years of research in the book La Musique de la Bible Revelee (The Music of the Bible Revealed). She is convinced that mysterious signs scattered throughout the Hebrew scriptures, both above and below the letters, are actually a system of musical notation, and not punctuation or accent marks as has been traditionally believed. Furthermore, she has reduced these signs to a system of notation, and has transcribed and recorded the melodies for approximately three hours of Bible music.

Werner also describes the musical performance in the Jews’ Second Temple: The morning sacrifice was accompanied by three trumpet blasts; the cymbals clashed, signaling the beginning of the Levitical chant. At the end of each portion the trumpets joined the singing to indicate to the congregation the moment when they were to prostrate themselves. Every song was probably divided into three portions. (Werner, 623)

Most scholars agree that music in the temple was almost completely professional and sacerdotal (performed by priests). The Jewish people participated principally as listeners. It is reasoned that they may have frequently joined in the traditional responses “amen” and “alleluia,” and possibly in an antiphonal refrain like “for his steadfast loves endures for ever” (Ps. 136).

The book of Psalms has been called the “hymnal of Israel.” The Psalms were sung in regular sequences following the morning and evening sacrifice on specified days of the week and were accompanied by instruments that occasionally indulged in an interlude indicated by the word Selah.

Psalms offered specific types of worship expression:

  • Praise: For it is good to sing praises to our God; for he is gracious, and a song of praise is seemly (Ps. 147:1).
  • Petition: Give ear, O Shepherd of Israel, thou who leadest Joseph like a flock! Thou who art enthroned upon the cherubim, shine forth before Ephraim and Benjamin and Manasseh! Stir up thy might, and come to save us! (Ps. 80:1–2).
  • Thanksgiving: I love the Lord, because he has heard my voice and my supplications (Ps. 116:1).

There were special psalms associated with festival occasions—royal psalms to honor the kings (e.g., 21, 45, 101), processional psalms (e.g., 24, 95, 100), and penitential psalms for periods of national repentance (e.g., 130). The “Egyptian Kings” Psalms (113–118) were very significant in the observance of the Passover and other times of national penitence.

There were at least four different modes of presentation:

1. A simple psalm (e.g., 46:1), sung by one person alone.
2. A responsive psalm (e.g., 67:1, 2), in which a choir answers the solo chant.
3. An antiphonal psalm, with several lines beginning or ending with the same phrase (e.g., 103:1, 2, 20–22), sung by two choirs in alternation.
4. A litany (e.g., 80:2, 3, 6, 7, 18, 19), which included a repeated refrain (Werner, 621–623).

Eric Werner also gives four design types: (Eric Werner, The Sacred Bridge, p. 133.)

1. The plain, direct psalm—no strophic arrangement.
2. The acrostic psalm—phrases in alphabetical sequence (e.g., 119).
3. The refrain psalm—each verse ending with the same refrain (e.g., 136).
4. The Hallelujah psalm—begins or closes with the ecstatic exclamation (e.g., 145–150).

In addition to the Psalms, a number of important biblical canticles were used regularly by the Hebrews in worship, and have been carried over into many Christian traditions as well. These are the best known:

1. Moses’ (and Miriam’s) song of victory over Pharaoh (Exod. 15).
2. Moses’ prayer before his death (Deut. 32).
3. The song of Hannah (1 Sam. 2), a prototype of Mary’s song in Luke 1:46–55.
4. The song of Habakkuk (Hab. 2).
5. Isaiah’s song (Isa. 26).
6. The prayer of Jonah in the fish’s belly (Jonah 2).
7. The prayer of Azariah—Benedictus es, Domine (Daniel 3, Douay version; Vulg., 3:26–49, Apocrypha).
8. The song of the three Hebrew children in the furnace—Benedicite omnia opera Domini (Dan. 3, Douay version; Vulg. 3:52–90, Apocrypha).

Worship and the Calendar

Historic Jewish worship acknowledged that God is the Lord of times and seasons in the ebb and flow of life. The sacrifices were observed in both the morning and evening every day in the tabernacle and later, in the temple. In addition, the Jewish family regularly offered prayers at home at stated hours and at mealtime. The Sabbath was a time for more exacting expressions of worship; it commemorated God’s rest from the acts of creation and was observed in obedience to his command. Finally, there were times of intensely celebrative or penitential worship: Passover, to commemorate their deliverance from Egypt; the Day of Atonement, at the beginning of the New Year; Pentecost, associated with the giving of the Law, at the corn harvest; and the Feast of Booths (tabernacles) as “harvest home.” As we will see later, most of these practices based on the calendar have been fulfilled in Christ and transformed into Christian worship.

Worship Music and the Experience of God

The Hebrews shared richly symbolic worship that appealed strongly to the senses. The music which accompanied the sacrifices was a conspicuous part of the sensory experience. Musical sound revealed the presence of God, as evidenced in the accounts of the ecstatic moments of Saul and Elisha, and also in the requirement that song-chant would always be the vehicle of the holy scriptures.

One occasion when God was pleased to reveal his presence through musical performance was the dedication of Solomon’s temple: Now when the priests came out of the holy place (for all the priests who were present had sacrificed themselves, without regard to their divisions; and all the Levitical singers, Asaph, Heman, and Jeduthun, their sons and kinsmen, arrayed in fine linen, with cymbals, harps, and lyres, stood east of the altar with a hundred and twenty priests who were trumpeters; and it was the duty of the trumpeters and singers to make themselves heard in unison in praise and thanksgiving to the Lord), and when the song was raised, with trumpets and cymbals and other musical instruments, in praise to the Lord, “For he is good, for his steadfast love endures for ever,” the house, the house of the Lord, was filled with a cloud, so that the priests could not stand to minister because of the cloud; for the glory of the Lord filled the house of God (2 Chron. 5:11–14).

Worship in the Synagogue and the Jewish Home

The tradition of synagogue worship is of uncertain origin. Some scholars surmise that Jewish laypersons gathered in remote parts of Palestine at the time of the regular sacrifices in the temple at Jerusalem; others guess that the practice may have begun among Jews who were captives in other lands. Because the traditional sacrifices could only be offered in the temple, “sacrifices of praise and prayer” were substituted for offerings of animals and grain. Synagogue worship was in full flower during the lifetime of Jesus and the early days of the Christian church. It is not surprising then that early Jewish Christians modeled their worship partly on what they had experienced in the synagogue.

Synagogue worship was essentially a Service of the Word; it centered on the ceremonial reading of the Scripture, especially the Torah and the prophets, followed by an explanation of their meaning in a homily. It should be understood that the synagogue service was essentially congregational; though the position of the rabbi (teacher) developed in its context, it was essentially a meeting of laypersons, who probably participated in the prayers, and also in the free discussion which might follow the Scripture lection (see Acts 17:17).

These then are the component parts of synagogue worship, most of which have come down to us from the earliest traditions.

  • Scripture Readings (Torah; the Prophets)
  • Homily, followed by discussion
  • Psalmody
  • The Kedusha, “Holy, Holy, Holy,” (Isa. 6:3)
  • Prayers (The Yotzer and the Ahabah, emphasizing the creative acts of God and his love for his people, ending with the Shema—“Hear, O Israel; the Lord our God is one Lord,” etc., a declaration of faith and a glad benediction, from Deut. 6:4–9, 11:13–21; Numbers 15:37–41)
  • The Eighteen Benedictions (expressions of praise, petitions for material and spiritual blessings, and intercessions for many people, concluded with a united “amen”)

It is not known when music entered synagogue worship, but it is surmised that certain Levitical singers may have continued to practice their art in the lay-oriented gathering. We do know that only one or two solo singers (cantors) were involved in a service. They chanted the Scripture readings, the Psalms, the post-biblical prayers (Benedictions), and, according to some scholars, certain “melismatic” songs which may have been similar both to the ecstatic music of earlier days and to the “spiritual songs” mentioned in Colossians 3:16 and Ephesians 5:19. The musical style must have been related to that of temple worship, though presumably no instruments were involved since they were associated only with animal sacrifices. It is also surmised that, in the congregational character of this gathering, all the worshipers joined in the psalms which they knew, and very frequently in a repeated refrain, a “Hallelujah” and an “amen.”

We make this latter assumption partly on the witness of Mark (14:26): “And when they had sung a hymn, they went out to the Mount of Olives.” On the occasion of the last supper of our Lord with his disciples, the hymn sung was possibly one of the “Egyptian Kings” Psalms (113–118), traditionally used in the observance of Passover. In the custom of a typical Jewish home, Jesus pronounced a blessing over a loaf of bread, broke it, and gave portions to all those around the table. Similarly, at the end of the meal, a Jewish host would take a cup of wine mixed with water, give thanks, and then pass it around for all to drink. So it was that at the Upper Room supper, Jesus transformed this traditional act of thanksgiving and made it new, instituting the Lord’s Supper, or Eucharist, which many Christians believe to be the most significant single act of worship. The full order of historic Christian liturgy was developed by uniting the pattern of Jewish synagogue worship with the Eucharist.

Modern Jewish services continue in synagogues, without significant change in the basic elements. (In the orthodox Jewish tradition, the singing is still largely cantoral and unaccompanied.) The feasts are still observed as in ancient times, with one significant addition: Hanukkah, “the festival of lights,” is celebrated in December to commemorate the rededication of the temple in the second-century b.c., following the victory over the Syrians under Antiochus IV. In connection with the cycle of annual worship centering in the festivals, a regular schedule of Scripture readings (the lectionary), psalms, and prayers was developed to support the emphasis of each season. (The close relationship between Jewish and early Christian activity in the developing of “propers” for daily worship is related in Werner, 50–101.)

The Preaching of Paul

There appears to be a distinction in early Christian worship between the Jewish tradition (fixed forms, with a somewhat didactic preaching) and gentile worship (free worship with ecstatic utterances). Paul’s preaching appears rational and exegetical, as do his remarks to the Corinthian community (1 Cor. 12–14). Paul’s sermon preached in Athens (Acts 17:22–31) is a prime example of logic and coherence. It begins with a thesis statement and builds an argument from the premise that moves toward a logical conclusion. This sermon was a model for the more systematic and academic sermons that appeared in the Middle Ages. It also influenced Protestants, who were drawn to its pedagogical approach.

Paul’s Sermon in Athens

Paul then stood up in the meeting of the Areopagus and said: “Men of Athens! I see that in every way you are very religious. For as I walked around and looked carefully at your objects of worship, I even found an altar with this inscription: to an unknown god. Now what you worship as something unknown I am going to proclaim to you.

“The God who made the world and everything in it is the Lord of heaven and earth and does not live in temples built by hands. And he is not served by human hands, as if he needed anything, because he himself gives all men life and breath and everything else. From one man he made every nation of men, that they should inhabit the whole earth; and he determined the times set for them and the exact places where they should live. God did this so that men would seek him and perhaps reach out for him and find him, though he is not far from each one of us. ‘For in him we live and move and have our being.’ As some of your own poets have said, ‘We are his offspring.’

“Therefore since we are God’s offspring, we should not think that the divine being is like gold or silver or stone—an image made by man’s design and skill. In the past God overlooked such ignorance, but now he commands all people everywhere to repent. For he has set a day when he will judge the world with justice by the man he has appointed. He has given proof of this to all men by raising him from the dead” (Acts 17:22–31).

Jesus Preaching at Nazareth

In the account of the sermon Jesus delivered in his hometown, three necessary elements of preaching are evident. First, there is the liturgical element: Jesus’ sermon was in the context of worship. Second, there is the exegetical aspect: Jesus interpreted a text. Third, there is the prophetic element: “Today this scripture has been fulfilled in your hearing.” These three elements—worship, exegesis, and prophecy—have figured significantly in the history of preaching; they constitute the essential framework for the sermon.

Jesus Preaches in His Hometown

Jesus returned to Galilee in the power of the Spirit, and news about him spread through the whole countryside. He taught in their synagogues, and everyone praised him.

He went to Nazareth, where he had been brought up, and on the Sabbath day he went into the synagogue, as was his custom. And he stood up to read. The scroll of the prophet Isaiah was handed to him. Unrolling it, he found the place where it is written: The Spirit of the Lord is on me, because he has anointed me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind, to release the oppressed, to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favor. Then he rolled up the scroll, gave it back to the attendant and sat down. The eyes of everyone in the synagogue were fastened on him, and he began by saying to them, “Today this scripture is fulfilled in your hearing.” (Luke 4:14–21)