The Symbol of the Cross in Worship

The one symbol used in perhaps every tradition of worship is the cross. This article presents advice on appropriate ways that a cross may be displayed in the worship space.

It is desirable that there be only one cross visible in the chancel during the celebration of the liturgy. Depending on the architecture of the building and its furnishings, such a cross may be simple and unadorned, or elaborately decorated.

In a church with a free-standing altar, a fixed cross may appropriately be placed on the wall behind it, or it may be suspended over it. While it should be large enough to be seen, it should not be so large that it appears to lessen the importance of the altar itself.

When there is a cross above or behind the altar, the processional cross should be placed out of sight, or at least in a place where it is not facing the congregation, during the course of the liturgy.

An attractive alternative is to use the processional cross itself as the cross to be visible during the service, a practice that is very ancient. After being carried in the Entrance procession, it is placed in a stand in a convenient place in the chancel, such as behind or beside the presidential chair; at the end of the service, the cross is carried in the procession out. Such usage also makes possible some seasonal variety where that may be desired, an elaborate cross for days of special festivity and a simpler one at other times.

At services at which the cross is not carried, it is put in place before the rite begins. It may also be left in its stand outside of service time as a focus for private devotion.

The bearer of a processional cross holds the staff perfectly upright (not tilted forward), with one hand just below the cross and the other further down the staff, with the palms of both hands facing the bearer.

The custom of veiling the altar cross on Good Friday serves a practical purpose. By being concealed from view, it does not “compete” with the wooden cross brought in and placed in the sight of the people after the solemn collects (Book of Common Prayer, 281). The practice of extending the veiling to the whole of Holy Week can be defended on devotional grounds; the congregation looks forward to seeing the cross unveiled. But the value of extending it back another week, which became the Roman practice (now merely allowed and not enjoined), or to the whole of Lent (which became the custom in northern Europe) is not apparent, and especially when it involves veiling crucifixes during the season in which they are most appropriate. The practice of extending the veiling is not recommended here.

Candles and Lights in Worship

Lights serve both a utilitarian and symbolic function in worship. This article traces the history of candles, lamps, and other lights in worship and suggests ways that the symbolic function of these lights can be maintained.

The first recorded use of lights in Christian worship occurs in the New Testament (Acts 20:8). There the use was obviously utilitarian since the service was being held at night. By the third century at the latest, however, the bringing in or kindling of the evening lamp(s), whether at home or at a meeting of the church, was understood as a symbol of Christ, “the light (that) shines in the darkness” (John 1:5), and was frequently accompanied by a prayer of thanksgiving and/or a hymn. The Order of Worship for the Evening in the prayer book is a conscious revival of this practice, while the service of light at the Great Vigil of Easter is a special form of it.

Given this symbolic understanding, it is perhaps not surprising that the city churches built in the fourth century, after Christianity had been legalized, were supplied with sources of light for evening services that were far in excess of what was needed for adequate illumination. Lamps filled with olive oil (usually with floating wicks) were suspended before and above the altar, sometimes in clusters. Tall candlesticks, standing on the floor, were placed in the chancel and nave, and chandeliers bearing lamps or tapers illuminated the ceilings.

Lights were also used at the tombs of martyrs, many of which had churches built over them. Some of these were lamps that burned continuously; others were votive offerings of the faithful. This same honor was later extended to include pictures and images of saints.

No lights at all, however, were placed on the altar itself, which was considered too sacred to bear anything more than what was actually needed for the celebration of the Eucharist.

The fourth-century also witnessed the beginning of the practice of burning at least some of the lamps at the altar by day as well as by night—and not just at service time—a practice which is the basis of the tradition, which lasted for centuries, that at least one lamp should burn continuously in every church. (This tradition is still faithfully observed in many Lutheran churches, and should not be confused with the custom of burning a lamp before the reserved sacrament—a practice which was unknown before the thirteenth century.)

Such lavish displays of light were not, of course, possible everywhere, and especially not in the hundreds of small country churches built in the following centuries. For many, probably most of them, the single, ever-burning lamp provided the norm. Additional lights, as needed and available, were used in service time, and on festivals, extra lights were added.

None of the lights mentioned thus far, it should be noted, are specifically connected with the celebration of the Eucharist. The only special use of light at that service was the practice of carrying candles at the reading of the gospel.

It was not until the eleventh century that candles were placed on the altar itself, a practice that was originally confined to the greatest festivals. These candles were lighted for the morning and evening services as well as the Eucharist and were removed at the end of the feast. This same period also saw a change in the shape of altars, from that of a cube to a shallow object as much as twelve feet long. Far more space was available than was needed for the vessels and altar book; and in many (though not all) churches, candlesticks, in varying numbers, gradually appeared to fill up the space. In larger churches, elaborate rules were devised, specifying the number of candles to be lighted on or about the altar on particular occasions.

Much of the polemic of the Protestant Reformers was directed against lights, especially those which burned before images and relics—practices which had, indeed, given rise to many superstitions. The English Injunctions of 1547 demanded the removal of all lights except for “two upon the high altar, before the sacrament.” Attempts to abolish these as well were thwarted by the death of King Edward and the accession of the Roman Catholic Queen Mary.

The reign of Elizabeth I saw the disappearance of candles from the altars of virtually all Anglican parish churches. The use of two, however, was carefully preserved in chapels royal, in most cathedrals and college chapels, and in the private chapels of bishops and lay nobles. In some places, at least, they were lighted at all services, not only at Holy Communion, and in other places (or during certain periods) were treated merely as decorations, and not lighted at all except when actually necessary.

The general recovery of the use of lights in Anglican churches occurred in the nineteenth century, which also introduced a distinction, unknown to history, between “eucharistic candles” (two candles placed on the altar itself and lighted only at celebrations of the Eucharist) and “office lights” (the number of which sometimes suggested that Morning Prayer was more deserving of a great display of lights than the Holy Eucharist). The continuance of that distinction is not recommended.

As the preceding summary indicates, there has been no consistent tradition with regard to the use of candles. The use recommended here, as a norm, is the burning of two candles at all services. These lights may be placed on the altar itself or on the floor at either end of it.

Alternatively, two torches may be used. These are carried in the entrance procession, placed in stands on the floor at either end of the altar, used at the gospel procession, and carried during the procession out. At services at which there are no servers to carry them, they are put in place before the rite begins.

If a larger number of candles is desired, torches may be used in addition to the two candles which burn on or near the altar. In some places, processional candlesticks are used in place of torches. These are tall lightweight candlesticks, carried with one hand under the base and the other around the candlestick itself. When not being carried they are placed on the credence, or on the floor, or on a convenient shelf or shelves.

Where space permits, the use of additional lights on the principal feasts and in festal seasons is suitable. Such candles may be placed, for example, in standard candlesticks on the floor of the chancel, or in sconces on the walls. In some buildings, extra lights may also be placed in the nave. Such candle holders should not, however, be considered as fixed ornaments, and should be removed from the church in seasons when they will not be used.

Traditionally, candles used in church, and especially those on or about the altar, are made of beeswax. The Episcopal Church does not, however, have any rules on the subject, and other substances may be used as well.

In some churches, because of drafts, the use of “followers” on candles is a necessity. Metal ones, however, diminish the beauty of candles by obscuring the glow that the flame casts into the top of the candles themselves. When needed, therefore, clear glass or plastic followers should be preferred. Whenever possible, it is desirable that candles that are burning at the conclusion of a service remain lighted until the congregation has departed.

During the fifty days of Easter, the paschal candle is lighted for all services. The most suitable place for it is near the ambo. At other times it is appropriately placed near the font and lighted whenever baptism is administered. The prayer book also provides for its use at funerals (p. 467).

In planning new churches, and in remodeling old ones, it is suggested that consideration be given to recovering the practice of hanging lamps over or in front of the altar, either singly or in a cluster. Such lamps may be lighted for all regular services, or the use of some or all may be reserved for the more festal occasions.

The burning of a lamp before a picture or icon of the patron or some other saint or of the Virgin and Child (at least on occasion) is an attractive practice and is not today likely to be the cause of superstition.

A Glossary of Terms for Liturgical Vestments

Many technical terms are used to describe the variety of vestments and textile arts used in worship. These terms are defined here.

The vestments worn at the Eucharist are derived from the dress-up clothing of the late Roman Empire, the dominant culture of the world in which Christianity first took root. The only exception is the stole, which is a sign of office.

The basic garment is the alb, which is properly worn by all ministering at the service. Some albs are intended to be worn under other vestments, are put on over an amice (which is simply a neckcloth), and girded about the waist with a rope cincture. Other albs are designed to be seen, are more tailored in appearance, and frequently require neither an amice nor a cincture.

The surplice is a medieval variant of the alb. It is appropriately used as a substitute for it by all except the priest-celebrant, the concelebrating presbyters, and the ministering deacons.

The cotta is a shortened surplice. It is also far less attractive. Its use is not recommended, even for choristers and young servers.

Priests’ stoles are worn over both shoulders, and hand straight down in front.

Deacons’ stoles may be worn in three different ways:

  1. Over the alb (and under the dalmatic), over the left shoulder, drawn across the chest and back, and fastened on the right side.
  2. Over the alb (and dalmatic), with the center under the right arm, and the ends drawn across the chest and back and over the left shoulder to fall front and back.
  3. Over the alb (and dalmatic), with the center on the left shoulder, and the ends hanging straight down front and back.

The chasuble is the distinctive vestment of bishops and priests at the Eucharist. (It is also worn at the Good Friday and Holy Saturday liturgies.) Some modern chasubles are designed to have the stole worn over them. Most chasubles are not, however, and look best when worn over the stole. Chasubles worn at celebrations facing the people should be as attractive when seen from the front as from the back.

The dalmatic is the distinctive vestment of deacons, and its use is not confined to the Eucharist. It may be worn at all celebrations or only at the more festive times and occasions.

Chasubles and dalmatics, as pointed out above, began as articles of clothing, and it is desirable that they appear to be such. Their essential beauty should derive from their cut and choice of fabric, rather than from embroidery or other ornamentation. It is not necessary that the fabrics chosen should be “ecclesiastical”; decoration that suggests “slogans” should be avoided.

A cape may be worn by bishops and presbyters at services that do not include the Eucharist.

The use of frontals to decorate the altar is very ancient. In their classic form they fall to the floor, sometimes on all four sides, sometimes only on the front and back. In the latter case, the “fair linen” that covers the top of the altar falls to the floor at the ends.

A Glossary of Terms for Sacramental Vessels

Along with the Table or altar, the vessels used for sacrament are also important in communicating its meaning. This article defines many of the terms used in describing sacramental vessels.

Chalices are commonly made of precious metals or at least plated with such metals. Other materials, such as glass or ceramic, are also suitable, provided they are not porous. As the most conspicuous of the sacred vessels, it is desirable that chalices be well designed and finely crafted. It is also important that they not be top-heavy.

Patens intended for wafer bread (“well” patens) are usually designed to fit on top of the chalice, which is a convenience when bringing the vessels to the altar at the offertory. Patens intended for leavened bread are, of necessity, considerably larger, as well as being deeper. They also may be made of any suitable material. It is desirable that the paten used be large enough to hold all the bread to be consecrated at the service. When necessary, additional patens can be brought to the altar at the time of the breaking of the bread and used in the distribution of Communion.

Flagons are pitcher-like vessels, frequently with hinged covers, used to hold additional wine to be consecrated at the celebration. Like chalices, it is important that they be made of non-porous materials. In some places, the people’s offering of wine is brought to the altar in a flagon, which is then used to fill the chalice. An attractive carafe or decanter may be used instead. When the amount of wine to be consecrated is small, a glass cruet of suitable size is commonly used.

Ciboria are chalice-like vessels, with covers, used to hold the consecrated bread. They are convenient vessels for holding the reserved sacrament but, because of their chalice-like appearance, are not recommended for use during the liturgy.

Pyxes are small vessels, frequently shaped like pocket watches, used to take the consecrated bread to the absent. Ciboria are sometimes referred to as standing pyxes.

Bread boxes are small vessels, either round or square, with covers, used to hold wagers to be placed on the paten at the offertory. Such boxes may also be used, in place of a ciborium, for the reservation of the consecrated bread.

Cruets are used not only for wine but for the water to be added to the chalice and for the washing of the priest’s hands. It is helpful if the necks of the cruets are wide enough to make cleaning them easy. Stoppers are frequently easier to deal with than flanged metal covers.

Lavabo bowls are now generally the size of finger bowls. The original custom, however, was the washing of the priest’s hands, not merely of the fingers. The earlier practice and the use of bowls large enough for this purpose is recommended here.

Patens and chalices used to communicate the sick and shut-ins are commonly smaller than those used in church. It may be questioned, however, whether they should be so small as to look like toys. The bottles for wine provided in many “private Communion” sets, moreover, are difficult to fill and even more difficult to clean. In many cases, a small attractive bottle with a wide neck and a plastic-coated stopper will be found to be more practicable.

Ampullas are vessels designed to be poured from, used for the blessing and consecration of holy oils. They may also be used in administering such oils at public services. Between services, the oils are kept in tightly sealed bottles, labeled “Sacred Chrism,” or “Oil of the Sick,” as the case may be. Such oils may also be administered from “oil stocks,” small cylindrical metal objects, packed with cotton, into which some of the oil has been poured.

Ewers are large pitchers with a wide spout used to fill the font at Holy Baptism or to add to the water already present in the font.

Baptismal shells are commonly small and made in the shape of seashells. With the recovery of the tradition of using a significant amount of water, however, shells that are both larger and deeper are desirable. At the baptism of adults by total affusion, a large wide-mouthed vessel with a handle will be found most convenient.