Christian baptism has its origins in the various Jewish rites of ritual purification and in John’s baptism of repentance. Christian baptism differs from its antecedents, however, in important respects. It is baptism in the name of Jesus, signifying belonging to him, and is associated with the gifting of the Holy Spirit. Baptism symbolizes participation in Christ’s death and resurrection and the believer’s incorporation into the new covenant people of God. The New Testament does not lay out a specified order for the rite of baptism.
Baptismal Terminology and Water Symbolism
The English word baptism derives from the Greek verbs baptō and baptizō. In Greek, baptō means “dip,” “dye” by dipping something into dye, and “draw [water].” The intensive form baptizō means “dip,” or “cause to perish” by drowning or sinking (as a ship). The nouns derived from these verbs are baptismos (“dipping, washing”) and baptisma (“baptism”). The usual Hebrew equivalent for baptō and its cognates is taval; both terms imply an immersion and often carry the meaning of destruction by drowning. In the context of religious purifications the Greek verbs louō (“wash”), niptō (“wash, rinse”), and rainō (“sprinkle”) are more common than baptō or baptizō. The ambivalence expressed in the words baptō and baptizō is based on the natural symbolism of water, which holds an important place in all religious traditions. Water can refer to both the life-giving blessings of God and the evil forces opposing God’s authority.
Since all forms of biological life need water to exist, water is a natural symbol of life. Water quenches thirst and renews the human body. We use water to cleanse our bodies and to purify our food and all objects related to human life. An abundant supply of water— either through rain or from springs and rivers—brings growth, fertility, and prosperity. For those who live in dry climates water are a special sign of happiness and divine favor.
Yet water can be destructive as well as life-giving. Floods destroy homes, crops, and persons. Polluted water carries infectious diseases. The formlessness and force of water in a storm at sea or in a raging river make it a fitting symbol of chaos. In a religious setting, water can symbolize powers in opposition to the Creator God who imposes form and stability on creation. The ambivalence of the terminology for baptism and for water as a symbol finds expression in what the New Testament writers say about baptism.
Antecedents in Israelite and Jewish Practice
The remote antecedents of Christian baptism are to be found in Old Testament texts concerning ritual purification. Before carrying out rites in the tent of meeting (and later in the Jerusalem temple) priests washed themselves with water (Exod. 30–32; 40:2). On the Day of Atonement the high priest bathed his body before putting on the priestly garments and performing sacrifices (Lev. 16). The Pentateuch also prescribed washings as part of rites intended to end ritual uncleanness brought about through contact with unclean objects (Lev. 11:24–40; 14:1–8; 15:1–13; Num. 19:1–22). Ritual washings were so familiar to Old Testament writers that they used them in metaphors, thus endowing them with moral and spiritual dimensions (Pss. 24:4; 51:7) and in some cases eschatological overtones (Ezek. 36:25; Zech. 13:1).
Closer in time to early Christian baptism were Jewish practices that arose from or adapted the biblical rules about ritual purity. Part of the Pharisees’ program for a “priestly” Israel was the observance even by non-priests of the biblical rules for ritual purity. Ritual immersion baths from second temple times have been discovered by archaeologists at several sites in the land of Israel (Masada, Herodium, Jericho, Jerusalem, Qumran), a sign that ritual immersions were widely practiced.
The elaborate system of water channels found at Qumran indicates that ritual purification was a regular feature of life within the Essene community. The Community Rule (columns 2–3, 5–6) suggests that initiation into the Qumran community was accompanied by a special rite of washing that symbolized the initiate’s inner life: “And when his flesh is sprinkled with purifying water, it shall be made clean by the humble submission of his soul to all the precepts of God” (3:8–9). The community lived in expectation of the coming visitation of the Lord. From the beginning of their association with the sect, the members had a strong eschatological consciousness.
Two other possible antecedents for baptism are more controversial. The “proselyte baptism” in rabbinic literature (see b. Yebamot 46–47) is sometimes proposed as a model. A female convert to Judaism was required to undergo a ritual immersion, and a male convert underwent both circumcision and ritual immersion before undertaking Jewish life in its fullness. But doubts about how early this ritual was used and whether it should be called a “baptism” analogous to Christian baptism render it a questionable influence.
Likewise, the rites associated with initiation into Greco-Roman mystery religions are uncertain antecedents for baptism. That Jews of Jesus’ time knew about such rituals is entirely possible. But it is unlikely that such rites exercised more than a passing influence on the vocabulary and practice of baptism among the followers of John the Baptist and Jesus.
The Baptism of John
The Jewish rite most influential on early Christian baptism was the baptism of John the Baptist. John’s activity was centered in the Judean wilderness by the River Jordan. Not far from Qumran, this area seems to have attracted several “baptist” sects in the first century. The Mandaean movement probably originated in this milieu, though their claims to a direct tie to John the Baptist arose late, in response to Islam. Though part of a larger “baptist” movement, John was so striking a figure as to merit the title “the Baptist/Baptizer” from both Josephus (Antiquities 18:116–119) and the Evangelists (Mark 1:2–11 and parallels).
Whereas most of the Jewish ritual washings were self-administered, John’s baptism was administered by another. Whereas most Jewish ritual washings were repeated, John’s baptism seems to have been a once-for-all-time affair. John’s baptism demanded a turning around of one’s life in the face of the coming kingdom of God. Several important characteristics of early Christian baptism derive from John’s baptism: a water ritual, once for all time, administered by another, involving conversion and oriented toward the coming kingdom.
Two features distinguish Christian baptism from John’s baptism: Christian baptism is “in Jesus’ name” and involves the gift of the Spirit.
The point of contact between John’s baptism and Jesus’ baptism was Jesus’ membership in John’s movement (Mark 1:9) and the attraction of some of John’s disciples to Jesus when he went on his own (John 1:35–42). That Jesus accepted baptism from John is one of the best-attested facts of his life. Yet the accounts of his baptism (Mark 1:9–11; Matt. 3:13–17; Luke 3:21–22; John 1:31–34) are more concerned with presenting that event as the manifestation of God’s Son and Servant than as a model for Christian baptism. Despite the silence of the synoptic Gospels, it is possible that Jesus himself baptized (John 3:22, 26; 4:1), though this would not qualify as “Christian” baptism. [John 4:2, however, indicates that the actual baptisms were performed by Jesus’ disciples] The great commission of Matthew 28:19 reflects the liturgical language of the late first-century church. Neither Jesus’ own baptism by John, nor his activity as a baptizer, nor the great commission provides the one definitive link between John’s baptism and Jesus’ baptism. But given the common membership in the two movements, it seems that Jesus’ followers would have understood baptism “in Jesus’ name” and with the Holy Spirit (Mark 1:8 and parallels) as the continuation and fulfillment of John’s baptism.
Meanings of Christian Baptism
Baptism in Jesus’ Name. Christian baptism takes place “in Jesus’ name,” a formula that represents an earlier stage than the Trinitarian formula of Matthew 28:19. This Christological formula is taken for granted by Paul (Rom. 6:3; 1 Cor. 1:13, 15; Gal. 3:27) and expressed in various ways in Acts (Acts 2:38; 8:16; 10:48; 19:5). The Semitic expression underlying “in the name of” (lshem in Hebrew, lshum in Aramaic) allows several interpretations: with respect to, for the sake of, and with thought for. In any case, the baptized person now belongs to God through the saving event associated with Jesus. In baptism one belongs to Jesus (1 Cor. 1:10–17) and confesses him as Lord (1 Cor. 12:3; Rom. 10:9), thus putting aside all other masters. Perhaps with a deliberate allusion to slavery, Paul refers to baptism as the “seal” (2 Cor. 1:22). In baptism one is delivered from the dominion of darkness and transferred to the kingdom of God’s beloved Son (Col 1:13).
Baptism and the Spirit. Christian baptism also differs from John’s baptism by its association with the gift of the Holy Spirit (Mark 1:8; Acts 1:5; 11:16). Although the fullness of the Spirit is reserved for the eschaton, baptism brings the “firstfruits of the Spirit” (Rom. 8:23). The present experience of the Spirit is also described as the “down payment” or “first installment” (arrabōn) of what will be in the future (2 Cor. 1:22; 5:5; Eph. 1:14).
The precise relationship between water baptism and the gift of the Spirit seems to have been a problem for some early Christians. That the two belong together is affirmed by many New Testament texts (John 3:5; 1 Cor. 12:13; 2 Cor. 1:22; Titus 3:5). How they fit together is problematic mainly because of some strange texts in Acts. At Pentecost, the gift of the Spirit is a consequence of water baptism (Acts 2:38). Whereas some Samaritans had been baptized in Jesus’ name but had not yet received the Spirit (Acts 8:14–17), in the Cornelius episode Gentiles first receive the Spirit and then undergo water baptism (Acts 10:44–48). Those at Ephesus who had received John’s baptism need to receive the Spirit through the agency of Paul (Acts 19:1–7). Nevertheless, despite the variety in order, Luke’s point in all these texts is that water baptism and the gift of the Spirit belong together.
Baptism and the Death of Christ. The most extensive and profound reflection on the meaning of baptism appears in Romans 6. There Paul joins the baptismal themes of belonging to Jesus as Lord and the first installment of the gift of the Spirit to his theology of the cross: “Don’t you know that all of us who were baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death? We were therefore buried with him through baptism into death in order that, just as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the Father, we too may live a new life” (Rom. 6:3–4). The connection between baptism and Jesus’ death may have been suggested by the ambivalence of water as a symbol—both life-giving and death-dealing. Paul finds in baptism a death to the world ruled by the evil powers (sin and death) and the possibility of living a new life under the guidance of the Spirit (Rom. 8). Yet the new life is not yet fully realized; it demands conduct appropriate to one who is led by the Spirit (Rom. 12:1–8) and rejects the idea that “everything is permissible” (1 Cor. 6:12; 10:23). Thus in Romans 6 Paul specifies the point of identity between Christ and the baptized person as Jesus’ death and resurrection, underlines the preliminary nature of the gift of the Spirit, and challenges his readers to “walk” appropriately as they await the fullness of God’s kingdom.
The notion of baptism as passing from the dominion of sin, death, and the Law to the dominion of Jesus and the Spirit is Paul’s way of talking about a motif that runs from John’s baptism to Christian baptism: the forgiveness of sins (Mark 1:4; Luke 3:3; Acts 2:38; 10:43; 26:18). This motif is also the starting point for reflection on the problem of repentance after apostasy (Heb. 6:1–6; 10:26). Other New Testament baptismal motifs associated with the forgiveness of sins include baptism as “pledge of a good conscience toward God” (1 Pet. 3:21), as a means of rebirth (John 3:3, 5; 1 Pet. 1:3, 23; Titus 3:5–7), and as a washing (1 Cor. 6:11; Eph. 5:26; Titus 3:5; Heb. 10:22).
Baptism and Incorporation into the People of God. The communal dimension of baptism and its power to incorporate even non-Jews into the people of God emerges from Paul’s reflection on people of faith as the true children of Abraham: “For all of you who were baptized into Christ have clothed yourselves with Christ.… If you belong to Christ, then you are Abraham’s seed, and heirs according to the promise” (Gal. 3:27, 29). In the midst of that conclusion Paul quotes an early Christian baptismal slogan: “There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Gal. 3:28). Though Paul showed interest in only the first of the three pairs, the content of the slogan corresponds to his themes of non-partiality before God (Rom. 2:11) and the equality of access to God’s grace in Christ (1 Cor. 10:1–6; Eph. 2:1–16).
Baptismal motifs are so prominent in 1 Peter that it has been interpreted as a baptismal instruction or catechesis. Whatever the validity of this interpretation, it is fair to describe the spirituality of 1 Peter as thoroughly baptismal. A consequence of the author’s reflection on baptism is his bold address to a largely Gentile community in terms applied in Exodus 19:5–6 to Israel at Sinai: “a chosen people, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people belonging to God” (1 Pet. 2:9). What makes possible such assertions is the incorporation of non-Jews into God’s people through baptism “in Jesus’ name.” [Baptism, therefore, corresponds to circumcision as the sign of the covenant between the Lord and his people. Paul compares baptism with circumcision in Colossians 2:11–13.]
Order for New Testament Baptism
There is no explicit description of the rite of baptism in the New Testament. What can be said about that rite must be inferred from passing comments. This is a dangerous procedure since one can imagine all kinds of rituals on the basis of metaphors and other figures of speech.
With that caution in mind, it is possible to say the following about the rite of baptism in New Testament times. The person to be baptized received a form of instruction (1 Cor. 15:1–8, Heb. 6:1–2). As with John’s baptism, Christian baptism was administered by another (1 Cor. 1:14–17). The word baptizō, the imagery of baptism as a drowning (Rom. 6:1–11), and the practices associated with Jewish ritual ablutions and baths (miqva’ot) all indicate that immersion was the usual method of baptizing. Women may have been baptized by other women (Rom. 16:2), though this is never made explicit. Where there was not sufficient water available for immersion, it was allowable to “pour water three times on the head” (Didachē 7.3). The person was baptized “in the name of”—at first that of Jesus, and later that of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (Matt. 28:19; Didachē 7.3). There may also have been questions directed to the congregation about the candidate’s fitness (Acts 8:37; Mark 10:14), hymns (Col. 1:12–20; Eph. 5:14), confessions of faith (Rom. 10:9; 1 Cor. 12:13; Heb. 4:14; 1 John 4:15; 5:5), and the imposition of hands (Acts 8:16–17; 19:6).
The premise behind most New Testament baptismal texts is that candidates were adults. It cannot be proved (or disproved) that young children or infants were also baptized in New Testament times. It is not certain that texts about the baptisms of entire households (1 Cor. 1:16; Acts 2:38–39; 11:14; 16:15, 33–34; 18:8) really include infants. Peter’s promise “for you and your children” in Acts 2:39 refers to the succeeding generation(s), not to infant baptism. Jesus’ rebuke of his disciples, “Let the little children come to me, and do not hinder them” (Mark 10:14), had nothing to do with baptism in New Testament times. Whether young children or infants should be baptized raises the question about the nature of baptism. Is the essence of baptism the candidate’s confession of faith, or is it the reception and appropriation of the salvation offered “in Jesus’ name?” [Or is it the sign of membership in the covenant community, corresponding to circumcision? Jewish males were circumcised at the age of eight days, not by their own volition but by that of their parents; it seems reasonable that some Christian converts might have viewed the baptism of their children as a parallel rite.]
Perhaps the strangest element in the New Testament teaching about baptism is the practice of baptism for the dead: “What will those do who are baptized for the dead? If the dead are not raised at all, why are people baptized for them?” (1 Cor. 15:29). It seems that people in Corinth had themselves baptized vicariously for dead people. Instead of criticizing this custom directly, Paul uses it to bolster his argument about the reality of the resurrection. The practice was continued by the Marcionites and other heretical groups but condemned by the church at large. Paul’s point was that this practice was a sign of belief in the resurrection at Corinth. The magical assumptions behind it ran counter to Paul’s insistence on “walk[ing] in newness of life” (Rom. 6:4 RSV), as his reflection on the wilderness generation shows: “all were baptized into Moses in the cloud and in the sea.… God was not pleased with most of them” (1 Cor. 10:2, 5).